Scout and her older brother Jem are being raised by their father Atticus Finch. Atticus is a smart, conservative lawyer, a man of position and good reputation in the town and has close relationship with his children. He helps Scout tackle certain problems and squeezes her out of tight situations. Atticus has a great, positive impact on Scout’s life; When she learns several lessons that Atticus says will help her “get along better with all kinds of folk”. He tells her she has to think of how another person feels in order to relate to them better. His advice and teachings help her to deal with any arising difficulties that come across her life. Atticus teaches Scout a lot more than the basic skills in life such as simple manners, rules, good behaviour and how to read-which causes some problems in the future.

Scout is bright and insightful, however gets very disillusioned about school and her teacher. Before starting school, she was very impatient and excited about her first day, but when that day came, Scout learnt that it wasn’t all she made it out to be. She and her teacher Miss Caroline didn’t get along very well, and Scout didn’t understand why she was forbidden to read on her own at home. Even though she is a young child, she assumes responsibility of speaking out for her classmates and explaining their behaviour to the teacher. To her disappointment, her insights weren’t appreciated by Miss Caroline. In one days time, Scout learns several important lessons about people and behaviour.

Scout learns a lot from her family through different things she had experienced with them. The relationship that exists between Scout and Jem shows that she turns to him for comfort. As Jem is four years older, she looks up to him and wants to be like him. This explains her behaviour towards the way she dresses and acts. She is known to behave like a tom boy, as the only woman she has ever grown up with is Calpurnia, a Negro house keeper. Atticus’ sister Alexandra comes to stay with the family. She is proper and old-fashioned and wants to shape Scout into the model of t he feminine ideal, something which Scout resents and does not agree with. Scout once accompanied Calpurnia to the Negro church, where she saw the “other side” of Maycomb. She was shocked and amazed when she saw how Calpurnia spoke around her people. She got a taste of the prejudice in her town, and learnt more about the lives that these Negro adults lead.

In the story, Atticus defends a black man Tom Robinson who is being accused of raping a white girl. The lead-up to this case has a tremendous effect on Scout. Scout finds herself whispered at and taunted by both children and adults, and she has trouble keeping her temper and gets into fights when Atticus is called a “nigger-lover”. After talking to Atticus, Scout learns to use her head and not her fists-to act rational and not emotional. This is when Scout leans of the Tom Robinson trial, although she doesn’t fully understand until some adults explain is later on. After the verdict is announced in Tom Robinson’s case, guilty, Scout is left feeling both angry and confused. She learns that a black-mans status in their time is much below the white-mans, and they are treated unfairly.

Boo Radley is another citizen in Maycomb, who contributes towards Scout’s growing awareness of the adult world. Growing up, Scout had heard countless stories and rumours of what goes on in the Radley house. The night that Miss Maudie’s house was on fire, Boo placed a blanket around Scout, without her even knowing it. It was after that first rare encounter with Boo that she started changing her mind about him. After the Halloween incident where Boo saved her life, Scout learnt a lot more about him. She learnt that all the stories she had heard about him weren’t true. Boo was a timid man who didn’t cause any unnecessary harm. Scout finally sees the fear and ignorance behind her own harassment of gentle Boo. To hurt or tease Boo Radley would be as shameful as killing a mockingbird.

To Kill A Mockingbird tells of the gradual awakening of Scout Finch into the adult world. Slowly she becomes aware of the difference between truth and gossip, and learns that people and things are often more or less than what they seem. Standing on Boo’s porch she realises; “Atticus was right. One time he said you never really know a man until you stand in his shoes and walk around in them. Just standing on the Radley porch was enough.”

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Korean War
The Korean War was the first “hot” confrontation of the Cold War. Korea had been invaded and occupied by Imperial Japan for 30 years. When American and Soviet troops accepted the Japanese surrender, an arbitary dividing line for occupation zones was set at the 38th parallel. The Soviets set up a communist government under Kim II Sung in the North while the U.S. backed the government of Syngman Rhee in the South. In a bid to reunite the country under the communist banner, the North, equipped with Soviet weapons, invaded the South in June 1950.

In response, the U.S. led a United Nations sanctioned military force under the command of famed World War II American hero General Douglas MacArthur to counter the North Korean advance. The mainly American UN forces could not stop the invasion. UN forces were pushed all the way down the Korean peninsula where they held a perimeter around Pusan. The perceived readiness of U.S. ground forces was called into question. In September 1950 MacArthur executed an amphibious landing behind enemy lines at Inchon, on the Korean west coast. Simultaneously, the UN forces were able to break out of Pusan. Steadily the North Koreans were pushed back up the peninsula. By October 1950 UN troops had advanced as far north as portions of the Yalu River, the border between North Korea and China. Feeling obviously threatened by a United States presence on their border, Communist China counterattacked in November 1950 throwing over half a million soldiers across the river causing a United Nations forces rout. But by the Spring of 1951 UN troops had rallied from the retreat and fought their way back north to a position slightly above the 38th parallel.

By this time General MacArthur was publicly advocating invading China. President Truman had no intensions of widening the war and possibly bringing in the Soviets. It would have led to World War III. Truman had no choice but to reel MacArthur in. MacArthur was relieved of his Command in April 1951. Although peace negotiations began in June 1951, the war dragged on for another two years, virtually at a stalemate. Public support for the war vanished in the U.S. Dwight Eisenhower was elected President in 1952, and Stalin died in 1953. With this backdrop a truce was finally signed between UN forces and North Korea (South Korea’s Rhee did not sign) in July 1953 leaving the border as it was before the invasion. There were more than 34,000 U.S. deaths. (Visit the Korean War Veterans Memorial) South Korean dead were 415,000 and 3000 United Nations allied dead. Communist dead were estimated at 2 million.

Out of the Korean War came the first jet to jet aircraft combat and the introduction of the first series of modern jet fighters like the U.S. F-86 Sabre and Russian MiG 15. “MiG”, the abbreviation for one of many Russian aircraft design bureaus became synonymous with Russian jet fighter.

Today North and South Korea are still technically at war with each other and stare each other down across one of the most heavily defended borders in the world. U.S. Forces are still deployed here. This represents one of the few remnants of the Cold War still looking for a place to boil over.

Arms Race Begins
The 1950s was characterized by the arms race between the U.S. and the Soviet Union. Atomic weapons, of increasingly destructive power, were developed by both sides to be delivered by air and artillery. By 1953, hydrogen bombs of potentially unlimited destructive power, had been successfully detonated by the U.S. and Russia. Nuclear weapons become practical instruments of warfare since new jet-powered bomber aircraft, such as the U.S. B-47 Stratojet, B-52 Stratofortress, B-58 Hustler and Russian Mya-4 Bison and Tu-95 Bear , were capable of delivering the bombs anywhere in the world. There was no immunity to the possibility of total destruction.

The spectre of total destruction formed the basis of American nuclear defense strategy. The U.S. would develop such overwhelming superiority in nuclear weapons that if the Soviet Union dared attack, the U.S. would retaliate swiftly and decisively. This policy of massive retaliation assured the U.S. could knock the Soviets back to the stone age. The U.S. Air Force’s Strategic Air Command (SAC), headed by General Curtis LeMay , was entrusted with maintaining and delivering the nuclear weapons. LeMay had bombers standing ground and air alert 24 hours a day. SAC reconnaissance and intelligence gathering aircraft routinely flew border missions and overflew the Soviet Union.

The U.S. and Canada formed NORAD , the North American Air Defence Command consisting of a network of DEW Line radars (distant early warning), surface to air missile (SAM) sites, and fighter-interceptor bases intended to provide a protective umbrella over North America against the Soviet bomber threat. To equip the bases, the U.S. Air Force and the Royal Canadian Air Force deployed Bomarc SAMs and the U.S. Army Air Defence Command replaced it’s anti-aircraft guns with Nike missiles. New interceptors like the “Century Series” F-101 Voodoo, F-102 Delta Dagger, F-104 Starfighter, and F-106 Delta Dart, and the controversial Canadian Avro Arrow were developed to replace the first generation of jet fighters like the F-86 Sabre , F-89 Scorpion , F-94 Starfire , and CF-100 Canuck . To extend the warning radar coverage provided by the DEW, the first airborne early warning aircraft, the EC-121 was deployed around the North American continent.

Red Scare American Style
In the United States the fear of communist infiltration and subversion led to several sensationalized Congressional hearings and crimimal trials. In 1947 the Congressional House Committee on Un-American Activities took on Hollywood, calling many famous producers, directors, and actors like Robert Taylor and Gary Cooper to testify about communist activities within the American film industry. Ten witnesses objected to the very nature of the questioning and were found in contempt of the hearings. The so-called Hollywood Ten went to jail for a year. Many more had their film careers ruined from blacklisting .

Two widely reported trials further fuelled the fear of the communist boogey-man. Alger Hiss , a Roosevelt adminstration official was accused of passing secrets to the Soviets. In the event Hiss was jailed for perjury but the proceedings made a name for the young Congressman leading the inquiry: Richard Nixon. Two less fortunate souls were Julius and Ethel Rosenberg . Convicted of espionage after giving atomic weapons secrets to the Russians, they were executed in June 1953.

The threat of communism to the American way of life and resulting paranoia is well illustrated by the witch-hunt led by U.S. Senator Joseph McCarthy . Between 1950 and 1954 he claimed the U.S. government was infiltrated by communists. His hearings received widespread radio and television (a relatively new medium) coverage. After stepping on some obviously patriotic toes along the way, Senator McCarthy’s excesses were exposed. The damage was done though as his hearings fed the flames of communist hatred, intensifying Cold War mistrust between the superpowers.

The Soviet Master
During his rule Stalin spent considerable resources eliminating all dissent and outside influence. There was one form of communism and that was Stalin’s form of communism. Gulags were erected to deal with perhaps the millions of dissidents. With the death of Stalin in March 1953, Soviet society remains closed but Soviet satellite countries began to test the waters of reform, if not outright rebellion.

In June 1953 worker demonstrations in East Berlin required Soviet troop intervention. As a result more than 40 people were killed and thousands arrested. In June 1956 a Polish workers revolt in the City of Poznan also ended in bloodshed with over 70 people killed.

Encouraged by the Polish revolt, demonstrators took to the streets of Budapest, Hungary in October 1956. They demanded the withdrawal of Soviet troops and free elections. Soviet forces and the citizens of Budapest faced off against one another with bloodshed let by both sides. After a short-lived cease-fire, Soviet tanks crushed the revolt. Thousands were killed. The West ignored Prime Minister Imre Nagy’s appeals for help, choosing not to get involved with the affairs of the Soviet Union and one of it’s satellites.

Sputnik: Technology Wakeup Call
In early October 1957 the Russians stunned the world when they successfully orbited Sputnik , the first artificial satellite. The military implications were obvious and immediate. Ballistic missiles capable of carrying nuclear weapon payloads intercontinental distances were now possible. The U.S. failed miserably in their first attempt to launch the Vanguard satellite. The first successful U.S. satellite, Explorer, was launched three months after Sputnik. The Soviet success was a rude wake-up call, calling into question the very credibility of the American scientific and technological community and the national education system.

In any event, the land and sea-based ballistic missile race was on. Nuclear warfare moved up a notch in it’s ability to terrify as there was no effective defence against a missile attack. “ICBM” (intercontinental ballistic missile) and U.S. missile names like Titan , Atlas , Polaris , and Minuteman became household words. To deal with the new Soviet ballistic missile threat, a series of Ballistic Missile Early Warning System (BMEWS)sites were constructed. The first was operational in 1960 at Thule,Greenland. Two other sites, one in Alaska and the other in England were eventually built by the mid-’60s. This system of radars was built to provide early warning of a missile attack from over the north polar region and therefore allow the United States time to launch a nuclear counterattack. An upgraded BMEWS , is still in operation today.

Here Come the ’60s
Despite the gloom and doom, 1959 saw the decade close with hope for future peaceful co-existence between democracy and communism. President Eisenhower and Soviet Premier Nikita Khrushchev held the Camp David Summit, a meeting designed to produce a more cooperative attitude between East and West. It was the first time a Soviet leader had step foot in America. But in the following year the ongoing mistrust between the U.S. and the Soviet Union would manifest itself in the shot-down wreckage of a U.S. spy plane.

Cold War History : Hot Spots – The ’60s
Nuclear Deterrence Concepts
During the 1950s the United States had clear superiority in the number of nuclear weapons and delivery vehicles (SAC’s bomber aircraft). The concept of massive retaliation only worked as long as the U.S. maintained their superiority. However, the Soviets embarked on an ambitious catch up plan in both bombers and missiles. By 1960 both countries put vast resources into new missile programs and bigger and more destructive weapons. More than half the 1960 U.S. federal budget went to defense largely to prevent a “missile gap”.

As more weapons were massed against each other, it became clear that the United States and the Soviet Union had enough firepower to destroy each other several times over and take the rest of the world with them. The U.S. came to the conclusion that under these circumstances the only purpose of nuclear weapons was deterrence value; an enemy would not even think of using nukes against the U.S. because if they did, an immediate retalitory attack was guaranteed to destroy them. This deterrence concept was appropriately called mutual assured destruction or MAD. The peace would therefore be maintained by keeping your finger on the trigger of the nuclear gun but never thinking of pulling that trigger first. And so it was throughout the ’60s. Regional conflicts invariably pitted the opposing superpowers against each other, with the nuclear trigger being squeezed tighter to one degree or another at every crisis. The potential was always in the back of your mind. What a way to live!

The U.S. nuclear deterrent force was composed of three elements: bombers ( B-47 , B-52 , B-58 , and later FB-111 ), ICBMs ( Atlas , Titan , Minuteman and later Peacekeeper ), and SLBMs – submarine launched ballistic missiles-(Polaris , Poseidon, and later Trident ). This “triad” assured survivability during an attack so a retalitory strike could be carried out by the surviving elements.

The Soviets didn’t subscribe to the MAD concept and destablized the situation by deploying an anti-ballistic missile (ABM) system capable of intercepting U.S. ballistic missiles. The U.S. countered the ABMs by developing multiple independently targetable reentry vehicles (MIRV). Up to ten nuclear warheads could be placed on one missile. The Soviets would now have to deploy ten times the ABMs to counter the new U.S. missile systems. The burden of defense Soviet-style was becoming very expensive.

MAD was complimented with another doctrine known as “mutual deterrence”. The theory was that if the Soviets unleased a nuclear attack on the U.S., the attack would be met in kind. This concept along with MAD did nothing to reduce the continuing stockpiling of nuclear weapons by either side.
MAD and mutual deterrence were later supplemented by the doctrine of “flexible response”. This provided a way to introduce conventional weapons (non-nuclear) into any defensive/offensive strategy. Flexible response doctrine included the use of biological and chemical weapons.

The ’60s Heat Up
Espionage by both sides was a Cold War trademark. The Soviet KGB and the U.S. CIA were very active during the Cold War era. The U.S. Air Force and Royal Air Force had been flying covert photo-reconnaissance missions over the Soviet Union with RB-50 piston-engined and RB-45 , RB-47 and Canberra PR jet aircraft since the early ’50s in order to get targeting information and disposition of Soviet forces. CIA spy activities hit the front page in May 1960 when a relatively new aircraft, the very high-altitude U-2 single-engine jet reconnaissance aircraft, was shot down over the Soviet Union and its pilot, Francis Gary Powers, captured. The U.S. government was caught with it’s hand in the cookie jar and could no longer explain away these reconnaissance flights as wayward weather observation sorties.

Berlin Crisis
Throughout the 1950s East Germans had fled to the West through Berlin. Berlin was an open city in that residents were allowed to move freely from side to side. By 1961 the losses of especially the young and skilled prompted the East German leader Walter Ulbricht to ask Khrushchev to help seal the Berlin border. In August 1961, the Berlin Wall began to be built. This structure, more than anything else, became the ultimate symbol for a world divided between the forces of democracy and communism during the Cold War. The Berlin Wall was Cold War Ground Zero.

West Berliners demonstrated against the building of the wall that now separated friends and family. The U.S. was not willing to go to war over Berlin since their rights in Berlin or access to West Berlin from West Germany had not been jeopardized. Vice President Lyndon Johnson and General Lucius Clay of Berlin Airlift fame were sent to show support. It was not until 1963 that U.S. President John F. Kennedy himself came to Berlin to view the wall and give a speech offering the people of Berlin and the rest of Eastern Europe hope for the future.

Cuban Missile Crisis
In the fall of 1962 the Cuban Missile Crisis brought the world to the brink of all-out war between the U.S. and the Soviet Union. After leading a popular revolution against Cuban dictator Fulgencio Batista, Fidel Castro ‘s new government nationalized most of the land owned by American companies. Rebuffed by the U.S., Castro accepted aid, including oil, from the Soviet Union. When U.S. owned oil refineries in Cuba refused to process the oil, he nationalized the rest of the U.S. companies. As a result, the U.S. initiated a trade embargo against Cuba. Castro was now firmly in the Soviet camp. In an attempt to get rid of Castro, the CIA devised an invasion plan to be carried out by Cuban exiles driven from the island in the wake of the Cuban Revolution. The Bay of Pigs invasion in April, 1961 was a complete disaster and prompted Castro to ask the Soviets for increased military aid.

By July 1962 the Soviets began placing medium range SS-4 and intermediate range SS-5 ballistic missiles in Cuba along with thousands of Russian “technical advisors”. These offensive missiles with ranges of up to 2500 miles could hit practically anywhere in the U.S. By October, Air Force reconnaissance photos had clearly detected the missile site build-ups. President Kennedy, after considering several options including air strikes, ordered a naval blockade of Cuba, to prevent any ship carrying weapons from reaching Cuba. He also demanded the removal of all the missiles, threatening nuclear war if the missiles were not removed from America’s “back yard”. It was a standoff for several anxious days. The U.S. and the Soviets were eyeball to eyeball. The U.S. went to it’s highest military readiness posture, DEFCON 2. Then, as the world seemed to hold its breath, the Soviets blinked. Khrushchev ordered his ships to return to the Soviet Union. Soviet missiles would be removed and returned as well. A deal had been struck between the two countries. The U.S. secretly promised to never invade Cuba and agreed to remove its ballistic missiles from NATO partner Turkey. It was the closest you’d ever want to come to feeling threatened by nuclear war in your life. Ask someone who remembers October 1962.

The Cuban Missile Crisis helped accelerate the deposition of Khrushchev. His mishandling of the situation almost ended in World War III. His grand domestic farm reforms were failures and there were perpetual shortages of consumer goods. Khrushchev was quietly retired to his dacha and replaced by Leonid Brezhnev .

In the wake of the Cuban Missile Crisis, after both the U.S., the Soviet Union, and the world had stared over the abyss of nuclear Armageddon, the superpowers decided that something must be done to limit the spread and use of weapons of mass destruction. A Limited Test Ban Treaty was signed by the U.S., Great Britain, and the Soviet Union banning the testing of nuclear weapons in space, the atmosphere or underwater. The space deployment of nuclear weapons was also banned. Before the end of the decade the first SALT (Strategic Arms Limitations Talks) negotiations began. SALT was designed to limit the growth of the U.S. and Soviet nuclear arsenals. (See The ’70s – Era Of Detente )

Czech Crisis
1968 revealed that the Soviet Union was as deadly a bedfellow as ever where it concerned its East European satellites. By the mid-1960s in Czechoslovakia, the economy was stagnating, as it was in much of the Eastern Bloc. Western influence in the form of music, dance, clothing, art, and ideas were seeping into the countries under Soviet domination. Reforms were introduced in 1966 to partially decentralize the decision making and turn towards making more consumer goods.

Increased student activism prompted Czech leader Alexander Dubcek to introduce more radical reforms like reduced media censorship.Brezhnev grew uneasy with these actions and felt Czechoslovakia was a weak link in the Warsaw Pact. There was the fear that the legitimacy of the communist party was in question.

To re-establish the hard line way of doing things the Soviet Union and members of the Warsaw Pact invaded the country with paratroops and armour on 20 August, crushing the “Prague Spring” . Once again, the Cold War flared, but like with Hungary in 1956, the West could do nothing but watch and register its complaints against the brutality. Czech freedom was not worth possibly “going nuclear” over. Reform within the communist sphere of influence was once again crushed under the heal of Soviet oppression.

Vietnam War
The Cold War ’60s is best remembered for the U.S. involvement in the the Vietnam War . In an attempt to prevent communist North Vietnam, led by Ho Chi Minh , from taking over the U.S. backed South Vietnam, political, financial, and covert military aid was given to South Vietnam early in the decade. This “advisary” role gave way to full scale conventional military operations by the U.S military by 1964.

Justification for direct U.S. military intervention in Vietnam was provided by the Tonkin Gulf Resolution, prompted by a skirmish between North Vietnamese patrol boats and a U.S. destroyer, the Maddox , on 30 July, 1964. The Resolution, overwhelmingly passed by both houses of Congress, allowed President Lyndon Johnson to “take all necessary measures to repel any armed attack against the forces of the United States and to prevent further aggression”. By the end of 1964 there were over 20,000 U.S. military personnel in South Vietnam, mostly Air Force .

Russia and China both supplied the North Vietnamese and their South Vietnamese guerrilla troops, the Viet Cong . After several attacks on the U.S. air bases in South Vietnam, Johnson started the sustained aerial bombing campaign against the communists known as Rolling Thunder in March 1965. The bombings would continue for nearly eight years, only interrupted when used as a peace talks negotiating tool. At the same time, the first ground troops, U.S. Marines, waded ashore at Da Nang. And so it began…

By the end of 1965 there were more than 180,000 U.S. ground troops in South Vietnam under the command of General William C. Westmoreland . The U.S. presence destroyed the fabric of Vietnamese life and culture. Farmers were forced to re-locate, their fields and villages destroyed. The bombing and defoliation of the countryside produced tens of thousands of refugees. The country was literally destroyed in order to be saved from communism. U.S. troops could not tell the difference between friend and “Charlie”. Armor was almost useless in the jungle undergrowth. Aerial targets were often undefined and nebulous. This was no place for the European conflict trained U.S. forces to be. Yet escalation continued. By December 1967 the number of U.S. troops in South Vietnam had risen to 485,000.

The war, a widely supported adventure in 1964, was becoming increasingly unpopular. It was consuming billions of dollars, money that could have been spend on Johnson’s “Great Society” programs. American casualties steadily increased. Every day on the nightly news Americans were brought up to date on the enemy body count and the number of U.S. casualties. Anti-war protest movements gained momentum. Potential military draftees fled to Canada or Europe or resisted induction to avoid serving.

In early 1968, during the Vietnamese lunar new year or “Tet” celebrations, the communists launched a country wide coordinated attack against U.S. and South Vietnamese forces. The Tet Offensive dramatically showed the world that the communists were capable of striking out despite the apparent heavy losses inflected on them by the Americans. In March 1968, Johnson announced he would not run for a second term and stopped the bombing of North Vietnam as incentive to begin peace talks.

Peace talks did indeed begin in May 1968 in Paris, France, but it was a painfully long process. The negotiators couldn’t even decide on the shape of the table and who would be allowed to sit at it! In the meantime, people were dying. With the election of Richard Nixon to the presidency in November 1968, negotiations continued. Nixon wanted “Peace with Honor” for the U.S, and the disengagement of U.S. troops from the war. “Vietnamizing” the war was the strategy that would allow for U.S. withdrawal.

By 1970 the war was tearing at the country’s conscience. When Nixon actually escalated the fighting by invading Cambodia in order to destroy communist supply lines, violent protest erupted across the country. These protests are forever symbolized by the tragic shootings at Kent State University. U.S. troop withdrawals proceeded through 1972 as the air campaign continued. In May 1972 the North Vietnamese launched a Spring Offensive into South Vietnam. The U.S. responded by mining North Vietnamese ports and increasing the air attacks (Operation Linebacker I). Sustained bombing continued through the year. Although many South Vietnamese Army units fought valiantly, it was American airpower that prevented a general rout in the face of the persistant North Vietnamese and Viet Cong. After peace talks stalled in December, Nixon unleashed Linebacker II, bombing the North Vietnamese back to the negotiating table in the most relentless air campaign of the war. The Soviets urged the North Vietnamese to settle. In January a cease-fire was signed. U.S. prisoners of war were released. There are many left unaccounted for however. The American nightmare was nearly over.

The last U.S. troops pulled out of South Vietnam in March 1973 after suffering more than 58,000 killed. The South eventually fell to the Communists in 1975. For the United States the Vietnam War does not so much represent the Cold War struggle of democracy against communism as it does the uselessness of war and the idealistic rebellion against government authority. The war’s stigma greatly affected a generation of U.S. veterans, unfairly labeled “baby killers”. The U.S. military suffered low public esteem for the rest of the ’70s, hurting morale and retention rates. The healing began with the construction of the Vietnam Memorial.

Cold War History – Detente: The ’70s China
Mainland China has often been called a “sleeping giant”. This label has vast economic and militaristic implications today. China is seen as a vast unexploited market for quality western consumer goods. Dealing with the Communist Government has been an exercise in patience and perseverance. It was the same way politically during the Cold War.

With the communist victory in the Chinese Civil War in 1949, the spectre of a monolithic communist enemy stretching from the Pacific to the Baltic and beyond greatly alarmed the U.S. The Soviet Union and China signed a mutual defense treaty with one another. Massive aid was supplied to China to help rebuild the war-devastated country. A taste of what fighting the Chinese “hordes” would be like was experienced by the UN troops during the Korean War. The U.S. found it necessary to prop up what was left of the Nationalist Chinese Government on Taiwan in order to maintain Western interest in the region.

However relations between the two communist giants became strained when Khrushchev began denouncing Stalin’s harse rule. Chinese Communist leader Mao Zedong , who went to the Stalin “My Way Is The Only Way” School of Leadership, kicked out the Soviet advisers and openly challenged Khrushchev for leadership of the world communist movement. .

During the ’50s and ’60s the Chinese people suffered untold misfortune under Mao. In 1958 it was the “Great Leap Forward”. This plan was suppose to revolutionize industrial and agricultural production. The only great leap forward taken was slowing down the growth of the population as an estimated 30 million people died of starvation. In 1966 Mao turned Chinese society on its head with the youth oriented “Great Cultural Revolution” . Thousands of zealous “Red Guards” waved aloft Mao’s “Little Red Book” of thoughts, roamed the country destroying China’s precious past and ran amuck through the general population. Books, artwork, museum pieces were destroyed. Teachers and government officials were ridiculed and beaten. Tens of thousands were tortured or killed. The country was in chaos and anarchy, all encouraged by Mao. By the end of the ’60s the hysteria was beginning to subside but the damage was done. The education system was in ruins as was the industrial and agricultural base. Recovery would take decades.

Against the backdrop of the Great Leap Forward and Cultural Revolution relations between the Soviet Union and China continued to deteriorate to the delight of the West. Throughout the ’60s there were Central Asia border clashes between Soviet and Chinese troops, resulting in military force concentrations along the Kazakhstan-Xinjiang border. .

In 1970 U.S. President Richard Nixon saw a chance to capitalize on the Sino-Soviet rift and to possibly seek an accelerated end to the Vietnam War still tearing at the fabric of American life. The big break came in April 1971 when a U.S. ping-pong team visited Beijing, the Chinese capital, to participate in a tournament. The visit was under the direct approval of Mao. In July 1971 Nixon’s National Security Advisor, Dr. Henry Kissinger secretly visited China and met Chairman Mao and Zhou Enlai, the Chinese Premier. This paved the way for Nixon’s historic China visit in February 1972. Photo-ops at the Great Wall made great TV viewing but the visit did not result in any substantial political breakthroughs other than to perhaps worry the Soviet Union about U.S. and China intentions. China U.S. relations remained at a relatively low level after the visit however. .

But after Mao’s death and the reign of the “Gang of Four” was over in 1976, China embarked on a rebuilding, moderate course under Deng Xiaoping . He sought closer ties with the U.S. In one of the few foreign affairs bright spots of president Jimmy Carter’s Administration, the United States normalized relations with the Peoples Republic of China in 1979. This action brought to an end U.S. policy to absolutely defend Taiwan against China, which always considered Taiwan a renegade province. .

The Soviets were, of course, alarmed by renewed vigor in Sino-U.S. relations and thought the U.S. and China were conspiring to gang up on them somehow. This was validated when China invaded USSR-backed Vietnam in retaliation for invading Cambodia. The U.S. didn’t have much to say about the event other than it had no intention of getting involved in wars between Asian communist nations. .

Commies in the Backyard
American foreign policy towards its Caribbean, Central, and South American neighbors can be described as disjointed, bullying, nonproductive, and self-serving. One constant theme emerges. The United States seems to consider it a right to interfere with any Western Hemisphere country’s internal affairs. Politicians wrap themselves up in the flag and mumble something about the Monroe Doctrine and freeing oppressed people. It has always been the American attitude to keep order in Central and South America to safeguard the lives of Americans and their property (read businesses). With the advent of the Cold War, keeping America’s backyard non-communist no matter what, became a prime goal. Communism could not be allowed to get a foothold in the Americas.

Guatemala
An early Cold War example of this was U.S. involvement in Guatemala, a country with a history of military dictator governments. The majority of land had come to be owned by the American United Fruit Company. In the early 1950s the company feared nationalization of its assets by President Jacobo Arbenz . In addition the country was buying Communist Bloc weapons. Arbenz was labeled a communist and the CIA secretly orchestrated a coup removing him from office in 1954. Subsequent Guatemalan history has been plagued with a succession of right-wing leaders who used political killings to stay in power. Civil war strife and the associated suffering would continue into the 1990s.

Cuba
Near the end of the 1950′s Cuba was ripe for revolution. The corrupt Batista government was the target of a two year struggle by nationalist Fidel Castro and his followers. Castro was victorious in early 1959 and established a coalition government. In 1960 the Soviets signed a trade agreement with Cuba and Castro nationalized American owned industries. A U.S. trade embargo resulted throwing Castro into a bear hug with Khrushchev. Thinking the same stunt could be pulled off as in Guatemala, the CIA planned a Cuban-exile invasion of the island in 1961. The Bay of Pigs invasion was a total disaster for the U.S. government. Castro was now firmly in the communist camp with huge popular support. In 1962, the Soviet placement of strategic missiles in Cuba nearly ended in World War III. (See The ’60s – Cuban Missile Crisis ) Cuba continued to be a pimple on America’s backside. Cuba began exporting its brand of revolution to neighbouring countries like El Salvador, Nicaragua and as far away as Africa . The U.S. blundered into a Dominican Republic civil war in 1965 with troops because it thought the war was Castro inspired. In 1967 the Bolivian government caught and killed one of Castro’s celebrated revolutionaries, Che Guevara who was trying to inspire South American revolt against American “imperialism”.

Chile
In 1964 Chile, the CIA stuffed the ballot box to ensure that socialist Salvador Allende would not be elected. This was done apparently to offset Soviet attempts to stuff the ballot box as well. However in 1970 Allende stood for office again and this time his leftist coalition succeeded. Chile had the world’s first democratically elected Socialist leader despite CIA attempts to prevent it. Allende instituted agrarian land reform, nationalized the banks, industry, and communications companies. U.S. aid stopped and Chile couldn’t get loans from the World Bank. The CIA inspired strikes by teachers, doctors, and truck drivers. Chile was racked with high unemployment, high inflation, and starvation. There was widespread rioting and civil disobedience. A military coup followed in August 1973. Allende was murdered and General Augusto Pinochet took over. Chilian democracy was over. A rein of dictatorial terror began. Pinochet suspended the Constitution, imposed strict censorship and banned all political parties. Hundreds of thousands of people were arrested
and thousands tortured, killed or just disappeared. The U.S. got what it wanted in Chile. It was the Ugly American in its most gruesome personification. Why should any Central or South American country ever want to trust the United States again?

Nicaragua
Considering the lesser of two evils, the United States preferred to support a non-democratic despotic and corrupt government over a communist government. This was the case for many years in Nicaragua. The Somoza family or close associates had been in power since the 1930s and was well supplied with American economic and military aid. But by the mid 1970s opposition to Anastasio Somoza’s dictatorship and harse rule grew. There were the Cuban supported Sandinistas who represented the peasants. Their leader was Daniel Ortega. Another opposition group was composed of the business class led by Joaquin Chamorro, the editor of a Managua city newspaper. The new United States President, Jimmy Carter, was reluctant to support the Somoza regime because of its very poor human rights record. With Chamorro’s assassination by Somoza’s soldiers in 1978, the country was thrown into a series of strikes, riots and then civil war. In a shift from historical U.S. policy in the region, Carter did not want to intervene but provided some support to the business classes. However, in mid-1979 Ortega’s Sandinistas triumphed and deposed Somoza. The U.S. provided some initial aid to the new government but this aid stopped when the country slowly turned politically to the left. Uncle Sam opened the back screen door and saw unwelcome neighbours walking on the lawn. It wouldn’t be long before the next U.S. President would attempt to do something about it.

Era of Detente
The Soviets were quite anxious over Nixon’s China visit and beginning rapprochement with China. It was time to conclude the first arms limitations agreement, SALT I, Strategic Arms Limitations Talks with the West. Negotiations began back in 1969 but moved along slowly as weapons continued to be produced and modernized. By 1972 an agreement was reached to limit the number of anti-ballistic missiles each side could deploy, and the Soviets were allowed to continue to raise their stockpile of ICBMs and SLBMs. Globe trotting President Nixon signed the agreement in the Kremlin, Moscow, the first American President to enter the bastion of communism. As SALT I did not address MIRVs, the U.S. continued to have the advantage in warheads. In addition to signing SALT I Nixon and Brezhnev signed a charter outlining how the two countries should conduct worldly affairs with one another to include avoiding military confrontation and do whatever necessary to prevent nuclear war.

Although seen as a sell-out by Nixon’s critics, SALT I was important as a first step in the easing of tensions between the two superpowers, a breathing space as it were. MAD prevailed but this first blast of warm air in the Cold War was refreshing. Trade between the two countries grew and Western tourists began to visit Moscow.

Amid the ping-pong and shuttle-diplomacy by the Americans, there was quiet rethinking going on in West Germany. The new German chancellor Willy Brandt decided that East Germany should be politically recognized. He made conciliatory overtures to the Soviet Union. With the Soviet pressured resignation of pain-in-the-butt East German Stalinist hardliner Walter Ulbricht in 1971, the way was open for easing tensions. In December 1972 East and West Germany signed documents that recognized each other’s right to exist. The heat was off Berlin. The Soviets recognized the legitimacy of West Berlin and guaranteed Western access to West Berlin from West Germany.

American foreign affairs breakthroughs took a back seat to President “Tricky Dick” Nixon’s Watergate break-in investigation that finally resulted in Nixon’s resignation from Office in August 1974. The new President, Gerald Ford, firmly believed in further rapprochement with the Soviets. A new round of SALT talks were initiated and further tentative cuts were negotiated at a conference at Vladivostok in late 1974.

The watershed of detente was the “Final Act of the Conference on Security and Cooperation in Europe”, known as the Helsinki Accords . Thirty-three European nations, Canada, and the U.S. signed this accord in Helsinki, Finland in August 1975. The agreement confirmed existing borders, encouraged trade, cultural,industrial, and scientific exchanges. It also addressed human rights concerns: free movement of people and the freedom to express ideas and circulate information. This immediately started creating problems for the Soviets who considered the issue of human rights a state internal affair. The signatories thus accepted the status quo in Europe. This was a good as detente was going to get.

Third World Hotspots
During the Cold War many established and emerging nations, for political or economic reasons, capitalized on the East-West conflict by seeking aid. Favor was curried from whoever would supply the grain and guns. To extend their political and military influence in a given region both the U.S. and the Soviet Union readily stepped in either as an initiative or as a response to the other’s actions.

Middle East
In the Middle East there was a classic pairing up of sides. The Soviets had early influence in Egypt as they helped the country build the Aswan High Dam across the Nile River in the late 1950s. The United States backed Israel, created from the British Protectorate Palestine in 1948 as a Jewish homeland, much to the distress of neighboring and displaced Arabs. By the early ’70s after one major regional conflict , tensions were still high in the area. U.S. economic, military, and political support for Israel was high. Syria, Egypt, and Iraq were getting the same sort of thing from the Soviets. The Middle East is always a war waiting to happen and on October 6, 1973 Egyptian and Syrian forces attacked Israel . After more than two weeks of fighting that saw initial Arab successes and massive airlifts of arms and supplies to the Arabs and Israelis by the Soviets and Americans respectively, a United Nations cease-fire was brokered by Moscow and Washington. The ceasefire failed. The Soviet Union wanted to introduce American and Soviet troops into the region to enforce the ceasefire since the Arab forces were facing devastating defeat. The U.S. said no way and the Soviets replied that they would go in alone. The U.S. told the Soviets to back off or face the consequences. The U.S. military went to its highest state of readiness since the Cuban Missile Crisis. After a couple of tense days the Israelis accepted the cease-fire and agreed to UN peace-keeping forces being introduced to monitor the cease-fire. Read the text of the Camp David Accords, brokered by President Carter . Tensions loosened and detente continued.

Africa
As European countries gave up their African colonial possessions in the ’50s and ’60s, new nations emerged. Would they end up despotic, democratic or communist? Of course the U.S. and Soviets were happy to help things along. This is best illustrated by the civil war in Angola. In early 1974 Portugal announced it was going to set its province (Portuguese West Africa free in November. There were three nationalist factions vying for power: the Marxist Popular Movement for the Liberation of Angola (MPLA), the anti-communist Front for the National Liberation of Angola (FNLA) and the National Union for the Total Independence of Angola (UNITA), a FNLA splinter group. The CIA supplied the FNLA and UNITA with money and arms. South Africa helped UNITA as well. The Soviets backed the MPLA. Castro also threw his support behind MPLA with arms and supplies but more significantly with military advisors. In August 1974 the FNLA, based in northern Angola made a bid for power by marching on the capital Luanda. From the south, South Africa, supporting UNITA and encouraged by the U.S., committed its own troops to the civil war and also marched on Luanda. The MPLA asked for and got Soviet arms and direct Cuban support in the form of thousands of ground troops. The Cuban force was decisive in defeating the South African and FNLA forces. The MPLA declared an independent Angola. There was immediate Soviet recognition. The two countries signed a long friendship treaty. Eventually the Cuban troops were withdrawn and Angola settled into years of civil war strife.

The U.S., concerned over the Angolan defeat, was also worried about the political situation in Ethiopia. Ethiopia went Marxist in 1974 and invited Soviet support and influence. Somalia, Ethiopia’s long-time enemy, was also friendly to the Soviets but turned color and asked for Western aid. Somalia became aggressive in July 1977 and invaded Ethiopia’s Ogaden desert region. The Soviets rushed military aid to Ethiopia and thousands of Cuban troops intervened. The Somalis were defeated and withdrew. The U.S. felt this action, along with Soviet and Cuban intervention, was hurting detente and showed that the Soviets still had aggressive intentions around the world. It was starting to get cold again.

Afghanistan
In 1974, the new Afghan leader Mohammed Daoud Khan made overtures to the West for economic aid. The United States was only too pleased to oblige as it would help displace Soviet influence in the area. ( Click here for an overview of the Afghan Marxist Revolution ). The Soviets were understandably alarmed by this development as Afghanistan bordered the USSR. Daoud was deposed in a bloody military coup in 1978 and a pro-communist government under Nur Mohammed Taraki was set up. Reforms instituted by the new government upset the fundamentalist Islamic factions . Soon the fundamentalist rebels called the Mujahedeen (Soldiers of God) were receiving assistance from Iran (that had just undergone a fundamentalist revolution orchestrated by the Ayatollah Khomeini). The Mujahedeen started an uprising, killing Afghans and Soviet advisors alike.

In early 1979 Taraki asked the Soviets to send military equipment and troops. The Kremlin resisted direct intervention. In September Taraki was overthrown and killed by Hafizullah Amin, one of his ministers. The Soviets feared Amin wanted to align with the West or Pakistan and perhaps China. The failure of an Afghan communist revolution would have a negative effect on other world communist movements. Against the military’s and other Politburo members better judgement, it was decided to invade. On 25 December Soviet troops crossed the Afghan border and parachuted into the capital Kabul. Within 48 hours it was over. Amin was killed and replaced by Babrak Karmal. And so the Soviets started going down the road to their own “Vietnam” hell.

Taking Steps Backwards
Jimmy Carter won the 1976 U.S. presidential election. He wanted to throttle back the arms race between the United States and the Soviet Union by reducing the levels of nuclear armaments below that tentatively agreed to in 1974. The Soviets refused to entertain the thought. Carter also wanted to push the Soviets on human rights issues. In Helsinki 35 nations (including the USSR) signed the previously mentioned Helsinki Accords . In Czechoslovakia dissidents drew up their own human rights document, Charter 77 . There was growing awareness of and sympathy for Soviet dissidents who were jailed, sent to labor camps, drugged and otherwise mistreated by the authorities (better than a bullet in the head?). The spotlight was cast on Soviet Jews who were denied exit visas out of the Soviet Union as guaranteed by the Helsinki Accords. The human rights issue was a sharp pin jabbing in the side of the Soviets and they were becoming more and more irritated by it. This put a big strain on Soviet-U.S. relations.

In an effort to upgrade their European missile systems, the Soviets introduced the SS-20 medium range ballistic missile into the European theater in 1977. It was MIRV’d and was fired from a mobile launcher. This was viewed as an aggressive act by NATO, an attempt to introduce a weapon system that could be used in a limited European war. It was a way to separate the United States from Europe. Would the U.S. want to fight despite its NATO ties and risk world war if the targets were only in Europe? In order to reassure its European allies and counter the Soviet threat, the United States made plans to station still-under-development ground-launched cruise missiles and the new Pershing II ballistic missiles in Western European countries. Carter encouraged NATO members to increase their conventional war-fighting capabilities, to take a larger responsibility for the defense of Europe. All this was going on while the Soviets and Americans were negotiating the second round of nuclear arms limitations, SALT II . European theater weapons were not part of SALT II. The treaty was foremost designed to put an upper limit on the number of missiles each side could possess. It also limited MIRV’d warheads to 10 per missile. .
The protracted SALT II negotiations were formalized by a treaty signed in Vienna in June 1979 by Carter and the ailing Brezhnev, the first and only time the two met. Carter had a hard time selling the U.S. Congress on SALT II because it was perceived as making too many concessions.

Carter could not win with his critics. He was unskilled in foreign affairs and viewed as being soft on the Soviets in arms negotiations. He called for very modest boosts in defense sending. He canceled a new strategic bomber, the B-1. He did not deal effectively with Soviet intervention in Africa and the American hostage crisis that began in Tehran, Iran in November 1979. Then, with the Soviet invasion of Afghanistan in December, Carter gave up trying to get SALT II ratified. He called for increases in the defense budgets and approved development of the new MX (later called Peacekeeper) ICBM system. He wanted Soviet trade sanctions and a boycott of the 1980 Summer Olympics being held in Moscow. Detente was over. It was too little too late for President Carter though. Plagued with foreign policy disasters and a stagnated U.S. economy he was swept from the Whitehouse by “cowboy” Ronald Reagan in the 1980 election. Reagan promised a “get tough” policy with the Soviets and to restore the prestige and glory of the United States as the world’s bastion of freedom. With all the trouble in the world at the end of 1979 it was unclear whether the new decade offered anything new or just more of the same. As events unfolded the 1980s turned out to be anything but “more of the same”.

Cold War History – Glasnost: The ’80s
The first year of the new decade saw the first real cracks in communist rule appearing. In Poland, worker unrest led to major labor strikes that year and the emergence of the Solidarity movement. Although concessions were made, Solidarity was eventually forced underground. However, the movement drew worldwide attention to itself and its leader Lech Walesa , both becoming symbols of the struggle of Eastern Europeans against their Soviet oppressors.

In the early 1980s the U.S. renewed an arms build-up under newly-elected President Ronald Reagan against the Soviet “Evil Empire” . The world had to look no farther than the cold-blooded Soviet shootdown of an off-course Korean Airlines Boeing 747 to realize how morally corrupt the Soviet Union and its systems were. President Reagan would protect America with the “Star Wars” Strategic Defense Initiative (SDI) . U.S. ground-launched cruise missiles (GLCM) were deployed to Europe with great fanfare. A new ICBM was developed, the Peacekeeper , and the 1970′s B-1 swing-wing strategic bomber was resurrected from obscurity. However by 1985 winds of change began to blow in the Soviet Union.

After Leonid Brezhnev ‘s death in 1982, the Soviet Union went through two short-lived Premiers until Mikhail Gorbachev came along in 1985. As the new Soviet President and Premier, he started a “glasnost” or openness policy concerning political and cultural affairs. He promoted “perestroika” or reform and restructuring of the Soviet economy. His policies led to domestic constitutional reforms and serious arms reduction talks with the U.S. In 1988 he reduced Soviet conventional forces in Eastern Europe and along the Soviet-China border. In 1989 he withdrew Soviet troops from Afghanistan and pursued a non-intervention policy in East European reform movements. This eventually led to the peaceful breaching of the Berlin Wall, the symbol of a world divided for more than 28 years. .

Gorbachev’s policies led to renewed vigor in arms reduction negotiations, now renamed the Strategic Arms Reduction Talks (START 1) . This ongoing series promises deep cuts in both the numbers and types of nuclear weapons each
country can possess.

Cold War History – The End: The ’90s
By the early 1990s Eastern European governments were no longer able to hold back the will of their people and one after the other elected non-communist governments. The Soviet Union did nothing to intervene. Germany was reunited. In 1991twelve Soviet Republics formed a new union, the Commonwealth of Independent States (CIS), with the other three going their own way. The Soviet Union ceased to exist. The Cold War was over.

Today, Communism still exists. Stockpiles of nuclear weapons held by the United States, Great Britain, France, Russia, and China still exist. Efforts are being made to get rid of up to 75% of the weapons held by these countries through continued START 2 negotiations. What doesn’t exist today is the threat that an ideological difference of opinion between those countries possessing nuclear weapons and practical delivery systems can plunge the world into a nuclear winter.

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However, there has not been extensive research to indicate substantially what the positive or negative effects have been on these children (Science News, 2002). How we define the terms of corporal punishment becomes the most controversial subject today among educators, doctors, psychologists, and organizations that support the human rights of a child. Corporal punishment differentiates from capital punishment. Yet, the terms are so broad and range from one extreme of mild spanking to the other extreme of being put to death that the term corporal punishment in itself needs to be re-defined. The focus of this research will be narrowed to the milder form of corporal punishment, otherwise known as spanking. A primary area of controversy with corporal punishment is the infliction of pain without injury (Benatar, 2001). Spanking, hitting, swatting, caning, beating and flogging to name just a few are forms of corporal punishment. In most forms, it is administered primarily by an adult usually in a home or school environment, which are punishments given for offenses that are deemed morally wrong. Corporal Punishment is an aggressive behavior that teaches children that aggression is acceptable (Thomas, 2002). Elizabeth Gershoff, a Developmental Psychologist with Columbia University’s National Center for Children in Poverty, has done the most comprehensive research on spanking. Gershoff’s research analyzed more than 80 studies on spanking spanning over 60 years Gershoff states, “The more children are spanked the more likely they are to be aggressive, delinquent, defiant, and to have mental health issues in the future”. The only fault to this research is the ability to identify how much spanking puts a child at risk.

Gershoff is not without criticism on the research she accomplished. Currently, there is still no evidence provided in her research that shows that corporal punishment implants a sense of right from wrong. In the United States, corporal punishment has been the conventional method of discipline since early colonial times (Andero, Stewart). It is illegal in all 50 states for another adult to physically strike another adult in any manner. In fact, it is considered a crime and is punishable under the law, which does not apply to those under eighteen. In our country, it is legal for parents to hit, strike, or use corporal punishment against their own children. Each state may have a different definition for corporal punishment, which does not meet the criteria to be considered child abuse (Couture, 2001). There are Twenty-seven states that banned corporal punishment in public and private schools, while 23 states are still permitted to practice corporal punishment. A study done in 1996 by the American Academy of Pediatrics comprised of middle-class families questioned 320 two-parent families where at least one parent and child completed a questionnaire with the primary focus being the use of corporal punishment in the home. It is important to note the children were questioned in a separate room where the answers could not be directly influenced by their parent. In this study, 17% of the families did not use corporal punishment while 83% did. Of that, 35% of the participants reported using an object to deliver the punishment (Graziano, Hamblen, Plante, 1996). Most parents believe spanking teaches children important and valuable lessons. Parents also indicated in this study, the major reason for punishing their children is disobedience, and disrespectfulness, which challenged their parental authority. Additionally, they also displayed the attitude that it is a parental right and fact of life (Graziano et al., 1996). The American Academy of pediatrics research suggests that corporal punishment is the least effective form of discipline. Elizabeth Gershoff contends that “the practice of corporal punishment can be traced to the American colonial belief of obedience to parents teaches children obedience to god” (Psychology Today, 2002, p26), which may be why many people believe the adage “Spare the rod and spoil the child” is a biblical endorsement. This adage came from the poem “Hudibras”, written by Samuel Butler in 1664, which does not appear in scripture. When scripture is used in the rearing of children it is very easy for scripture to be misunderstood and misquoted. One such example would be Proverbs 23:13,14 is a commonly cited scripture for support in the use of corporal punishment. It is well known that King Solomon, author of the book of Proverbs, was recorded as a brutal king, who thirsted for violence. Supposedly, the book of proverbs reflects his parenting beliefs.

Solomon’s son Rehoboam became a hated ruler and had to leave to avoid assassination from his own people. Many Christians today believe the “Rod” is a symbolic metaphor for a shepherd’s staff, which was used to lead or guide not to hit. Many of the arguments that are raised in the debate on corporal punishment are the lasting effect on children. Some of the identified arguments raised by people who believe corporal punishment should not be inflicted are, (Benetar, 2001): · Corporal Punishment leads to child abuse · It is degrading and humiliating to a child · It is psychologically damaging · It teaches children the wrong lesson · It causes children to form poor relationships · It does not deter the disobedient behavior. Research into the relations between corporal punishment and child abuse are questionable, so far (Benetar, 2001). Degrading or shaming a child by the use of corporal punishment does lower ones sense of how others may view them, which can also lower a child’s self-esteem, cause depression, and even anxiety.

Corporal punishment has also been found to cause sexual and social problems (Benetar 2001). It is indicative of external control regardless of the intent. It is also misguided and confuses the issues of love and violence. Discipline and punishment have two very different but distinct definitions, except society deems them as one in the same. In fact, discipline is a very important part of Christian life, and is the ability to teach appropriate and acceptable behavior in children. Discipline does not inflict pain or fear in a child. Conversely it does provide harsh punishment does inflict physical pain and is used for power and reprisal. However, discipline provides a child a foundation of love; trust, and mutual respect. A child’s relationship with a parent should never be based on fear, pain and intimidation; instead it should be with tenderness, affection, and fondness. National attention has been brought to the plight of children and their rights. Ten nations have banned any form of corporal punishment. First, in 1979, Sweden protected children against corporal punishment. Sweden banned parents from using corporal punishment in any way on children, but, unfortunately, parents were not prosecuted for corporal punishment under the law (Couture, 2001). There were cases documented in the United States on corporal punishment since the early 1920’s. For instance, in Atlantic City, New Jersey, a father was summoned to court because of his son’s unruliness. On July 9, 1927, Judge William H. Smathers advised the father to give his son “a thick and heavy licking” for creating trouble at home, and staying out late. The judge was eager and willing to demonstrate this punishment (New York Times, 1927). Another well-documented incident on March 24, 1925, demonstrates in two separate states, that corporal punishment was the norm for disobedient children. In Philadelphia, two boys were given the sentence of an old-fashioned “woodshed walloping” for taking a motor vehicle which was not their own. The second incident, in Kansas, Judge Henry Meade himself spanked two boys for playing hooky (New York Times, 1925). Court cases reviewed in today’s society, tell a different side of corporal punishment. One case in particular occurred in Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania. The Blair County Children and Youth Service filed reports with the Pennsylvania Commonwealth Court, against a 13-year-old boy’s parent for child abuse. According to court records, the child was paddled for being aggressive and verbally abusive towards his mother and her male partner. The child was paddled more than twelve times, suffered bruises and had trouble sitting for several days. There were no criminal charges filed against the parents, the courts said there was no evidence of malicious intent or negligence and the child’s bruises were the “normal regrettable result” of a paddling (WTAE-TV, 2003). Yet, in another case in Pierre, South Dakota a circuit judge found a 12-year-old boy’s Mother and Stepfather guilty of neglect and abuse. Court records show the child’s stepfather admitting he had taken the child to his bedroom and spanked him eight to ten times with a belt. The father had said the child had thrown a trashcan, and when confronted became out of control. The parents filing an appeal argued with the courts on three separate grounds, one being it was reasonable punishment based on the child’s behavior over a three-month span, the second being the spanking was proper under a state law that allows parents to use reasonable and moderate force to restrain or correct their children. The third being the state of South Dakota’s child abuse law is unconstitutionally vague. The Supreme Court unanimously up held the ruling of the circuit judge, rejecting the parent’s arguments. Justice Richard W. Sabers wrote for the court “A reasonable person would be aware that forcing a child face down on a mattress, grabbing the child’s arm tight enough to leave bruises and beating him hard enough to leave bruises constitutes abuse”. South Dakota law says such force must be reasonable in manner and moderate in degree. The Supreme Courts ruling enforced the circuit judges ruling to have the child place elsewhere (Aberdeen News, 2003). It has been long established legislative policy to safe guard the rights of parents often at the expense of children. Indeed, parents should manage and control their children. However, children deserve the same basic rights due to all human life. Guidelines and limits should be set for all children; a child can only be expected to behave if the child’s parents are living by the values they are teaching their children. Discipline is about developing unquestioning, mutual and respectful bond between child and caretaker. Children who have strong, loving role models, and constructive, non-punitive discipline are more likely to have noticeable self-discipline, excellent social skills, individual accountability and respect and concern for others.

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Organic farming is a lot more healthier because of the absence of chemicals and genetic alteration. The fruits and vegetables grown at these all natural farms are treated with care and are held to strict laws to make sure the food is safe for the consumer and the farmer. A recent study conducted by the Soil Association says that the fruits and vegetables are healthier than their conventional counterparts. director Patrick Holden of the soil association says that, “fruits and vegetables that were grown organically have more nutrients and higher levels of vitamins”. The Soil Association’s research has also found that the fruits and vegetables have more secondary metabolites, a substance found to reduce the risk the cancer risks of humans. ( Organic Food ‘Proven’ Healthier ). This valuable research information is beneficial to everyone. Another reason to choose organic is that the chemicals used in conventional farming can be very hazardous to your health. Although government regulations carefully allow and test new pesticides for safety each year, many are found years later to have negative side effects. In the book Organic Gardening for Dummies the author explains how the pesticide chlorphyrifos was banned after people who came in contact with the chemical ( mostly farmers) began to experience complications in the respiratory, nervous, and cardiovascular systems of their bodies. The author Ann Whitman, tells how a research done by the National Cancer Institute found that farmers exposed to these kind of chemicals are six times more likely to develop cancer (12). Valuable information of this kind should not just be a statistic, but instead should be a serious warning for other farmers and their consumers. These chemicals and other unnatural farm practices have a negative effect on the environment as well, making the issue of chemical usage on farms a global problem for today and tomorrow.

The environment we live in is based on a system called an ecosystem. In an ecosystem everything is connected and must survive off each others actions. When farmers use chemicals they are disturbing the natural system. The chemically cultivated soil becomes contaminated and few variety of plants grow.

Fifty-seven percent more plant varieties grow in organic farms than their conventional counterparts. This is because the soils on organic farms are more natural and less tamed, making them a perfect environment for different types of plants ( Whitman 8 ). Organic farming is safe for the environment because it works with the environment and not against it. By using the materials provided by the earth, this type of farming has the ecosystem and the environment’s best interest in mind. The farmers who choose to plant organically are taking a big step in the right direction, insuring safe and healthy foods for their families and their consumer’s families.

Buying organic products such as fruits and vegetables helps small business farmers survive in a profession dominated by mass production farms. Organic farms are run in a simplistic manner. Hard manual labor and basic knowledge of how the soil reacts to different plants and environmental changes help replace the chemicals. The cost of the finished products usually cost a little more because the cost reflects the value of true manual labor. Unlike conventional farms, who use environmentally hazardous machines, and chemicals to yield their crops, organic farms weed, sow, prevent pests and disease naturally .The online news source, Inquirer News Service gives a detailed description of the typical organic farm:

Most organic farms are small, independently owned and family operated. They grow a variety of crops in a much smaller area. In a Tagatay, there are a number of independent organic farmers growing 15-20 different types of produce hectare. Unlike its commercial counter parts frequently using synthetic chemicals, organic farming employs mainly labor intensive practices such as weeding by hand, using green manure (composted of course) as fertilizer, putting crop covers to build the soil. Crops are also closely monitored for pest control. In case of infestation, the affected area is sprayed with a natural element like garlic. ( Why Organic Cost more than Commercial Veggies)

Purchasing organic foods shows that you support the small business of America. Organic farms do not get help from the governments like conventional farmers do. In fact, because of the absence of funds, many organic farmers are forced to sell out to larger companies. These larger companies are producing products that are not necessarily organic. Processed products like organic Twinkies, ketchup, and organic TV dinners are flooding the market posing as all natural products. This type of “big business” takeover is destroying the organic principles of simple living and the small business farmer, because the over all message of simplicity and keeping things close to the earth and nature are being lost or traded in for more profit.

Organic farming is a good step toward the future. Healthier foods, a better environment and saving small business farms are just some of the benefits of choosing organic. These reasons alone are enough to prove that organic farming should replace conventional forms of farming. Organic farming principles and ideas should not be overlooked. Its benefits are astonishing and are so basic that everyone can understand its underlined meaning; a better and healthier future today is a better and healthier future tomorrow.

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For Candido – the one with the strongest faith in the American dream – the dream is to make money so that he can provide a good life for himself and America. That is perhaps a typical male feature, especially for those coming from high a context culture like Mexico.

He is never really satisfied with what Mexico can offer him in Tepoztlan, what he wanted: “A house, a yard, maybe a TV and a car too,” was just not possible for him to get in Tepoztlan (29). Although he had been in America once before a couple of years ago, of which he had bad memories, he decides to go there again, this time with his beautiful, young, innocent wife with him. The first time he was in America working he was never really happy, even if he for a short period made money. He was working up in the north – where there was snow – and he was always freezing. He was not use to cold weather, and he did not like it. When he went to Los Angeles, where he could earn more money, his luck got even worse. After a tip to La Migra, Candido ends up running away, along with two other illegal immigrants. The other two – young boys – ends up being killed on the highway as they were following Candidos lead. Candido could never “forgive himself for what happened” (173). After that he goes back to Mexico. But despite the bad things he experienced in America he still wants to go there again, chasing the American dream. When he goes there a second time, with America, he is faced with even more bad luck, both for him and his wife. But even though he is faced with the unfortunate incident after another, both on the part of himself and his wife, the dream keeps his hope up. In Mexico he lived a much better life, even though he and America did not have any of the gringos luxury. America was not exposed with the danger that she was in America, they did not have to run from La Migra, they had friends, and they did not have to live an unworthy life as they do in America. When Candido’s mother is laying on her deathbed Candido says to her: “Mama, I want you to take me with you, I don’t want to stay here without you, I want to die and go to the angels too” (21). His mother answers him: “go to the devil” (21). This can be looked at as his mother is telling him that he should go back to Los Angeles (the city of angels) since that seems to be the only way he can achieve happiness again, even though it is obvious what she thinks of America and Los Angeles, and probably thinks that it would be best if he settled down in Tepoztlan. But Candido is willing to risk many things by going back to Los Angeles, this time with his beautiful young wife. Since they live in the canyons among other illegal immigrants, most of them single or having left their wives back home and trying to send home money, he exposes her for great danger of being raped, and she is. That would probably never have happened back in Tepoztlan, but it happens as a result of Candidoґs selfish decision to bring America with him. If he had been less selfish he would have returned with America when he was seeing that things did not go as he had planed, that time either. The only thing keeping them there is the hope that the American dream will come true and save them, but all it does is giving them false hope and keeping them miserable.

For the innocent America, the American dream is just what Candido glorified it of being, even though neither him nor anyone he knows have achieved it. Being young and naпve, she follows her older husband to the country where everyone can become rich. As time goes by she gets more and more sceptical. As she is out looking for job she sees a gabacho beggar on the sidewalk and thinks: “if he [has] to beg in his own country, what chance [is] there for her” (19). That makes it obvious that she had the idea of that everyone, at least all the natives, had or could get a job. As time passes by she realize more and more about the truth, the truth that Candido had not spoke of before they went. When they are fleeing from a big fire, caused by Candido, he asks her: “You want to die?” and she answers “Yes, I do” (277). And later during that same fire she has to give birth to their baby behind some house, where there is no water, no electricity, and no one qualified to help her. That is when she has enough, and she “wanted to cry for her mother, for Tepoztlan, for everything she’d left behind” (282). She realize that the American dream is something that is not so easy to achieve, at least not as an illegal immigrant, and she did not want to live on food that other people had thrown away, begging, or living like an animal in the canyons. She could live a much more worthy life than that in Tepoztlan. The young and innocent America is a victim of the glorified fairytales about America, told to her by her husband. She learns the hard way that it is not a fairytail.

For Kyra the American dream might seem greedy – at least compared to the Rincуns – but it is hardly unusual that Americans of that status have those sorts of dreams. Kyra seems to be obsessed by one of the houses that she is suppose to sell. And her constant craving for that house keeps her from appreciate what she have; a nice house in a nice in an exclusive community and a good husband and a son.

In conclusion, the American dream will remain a dream for most people. And if you are unlucky, like the Rincуns, it is even less likely to fall true. Candido’s selfish decision to go to America again, with his wife, destroyed both of their lives. The best thing would have been either to go there alone and trying to make money first, or go home when he noticed that he was still a victim of bad luck. But the dream was too strong. On part of the rich natives, like Kyra, the dream may destroy lives in a different way. The result is the same, unhappiness, just in a totally different way. Having dreams is not anything negative, on the contrary, but to live only for that dream will mean that you may risk losing what you have, or not appreciating it, and become less happy.

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The Glass Menagerie is the story of a slow and remorseless destruction of a family. There is nothing melodramatic about this destruction. It is gradual, oblique and laced with pathos and humor, but it is inevitable. The Wingfields are trapped in a situation from which there is no exit. The father has deserted them, the daughter is crippled and painfully introverted, the son has been forced through circumstances into a job that is stifling all aspiration sin him, and the mother is desperately attempting to hold them all together by using every means of which she can think. The tragedy is that instead of helping and bringing the family closer together, her efforts only hurt and divides them. She alienates Tom by trying to push him on his job, and she harms Laura irrevocably by first trying to launch her on a business career and then by attempting to find her a husband. But the original conditions are not entirely of her making. She is as trapped as Laura and Tom, trapped I the final analysis by an existence which offers no possibility of self-fulfillment. The struggle of the Wingfields is a kind of rear guard action against a malignant and implacable fate(Nelson 18).

The loneliness theme is particularly prevalent in the plight of Laura, but it is also manifested in Tom and Amanda as well. Laura is unable to achieve some kind of meaningful communication with another human being. Both circumstance and her introverted character prevent her from any kind of contact with anyone outside her immediate family. In the relationship with Jim, she is given one brief moment when she is able to emerge from her glass world, like a moth out of a cocoon. But once again, circumstance and character combine to close off this possibility of a new, meaningful relationship, and Laura is left in the end more alone than she has ever been. This theme is manifested in Amanda and Tom also. They have private grievances and are unable to communicate them or share them, even with the people they care for the most. According to Rowland Amanda is a lonely, deserted woman trying to seek fulfillment in her family but trying so hard that she only succeeds in alienating herself from her children. At the conclusion of the play, she too is lonelier and more broken than she was at the beginning. Tom is desperately lonely, unable to talk with his mother, and also unable to establish any worth while relationship with his co-workers. When he finally leaves home, he has escaped an intolerable situation, but his loneliness has become intensified. In the needs, desires, and frustrations of Laura, Amanda, and Tom, Williams expresses this theme of human loneliness and isolation very thoroughly. This condition, Williams seems to suggest, is one of the root conditions of humanity and will become one of the dominant themes in all of the playwright’s work (Nelson 63-73).

Illusion and reality are very important themes in The Glass Menagerie; each character fully manifests this theme. Every Individual in the play uses illusion to protect himself from a reality which is oppressive and ultimately destructive. Laura makes the most obvious use of illusions in her creation of a world of glass which becomes more real to her than the “real” world outside the glass menagerie. The world of glass figurines will always be beautiful, delicate, and tender. She will always find comfort in it from the chaos of everyday life. At the end of the play, Laura returns to this glass world from which Jim almost took her. She will never let the outside world impinge on her or hurt her again. She too will become a fragile piece of glass, lost forever in the illusionary world she has created. Unlike Laura, Amanda is never wholly lost in her illusions; rather, she uses them to fight a world which is closing in on her in the form of light bills to pay, rent deadlines to meet, and children to care for. Amanda’s illusionary world is in the world of her youth, seen now in her middle age through rose-tinted glasses. It is a world of gentleman callers, rides in the country, banquets, and balls; a world of gracious living and gallant sentiments. This illusionary world is used as a kind of respite for Amanda whenever reality becomes too overpowering for her. It is a world that once did exist, and Amanda has never quite recovered from the shock of losing it. But she is never completely lost in her reveries of it. She knows what the present offers, she is aware of the desperate and even sordid struggle her life has become; and she addressed herself to this struggle in a way in which Laura cannot. Amanda’s illusions, like Laura’s, are a kind of defense mechanism, but unlike her daughter’s, they are never as totally paralyzing. Tom Wingfield who is painfully aware of the illusionary lives of his sister and mother, is also aware that her leads one too. Reality, in the form of a destitute and dependent family, and a stifling job in a factory, is too much for Tom to bear. So, he creates an illusionary existence for himself in daydreams and motion pictures. In his dreams and in the movies he attends almost nightly, he shuts out the hell of his real life and lives a vicarious romantic and adventurous existence. Ironically, when he finally leaves his family and the shoe factory for what he hopes will be a life of adventure; he finds that is illusions are not enough. The reality that he left behind a struggling and pathetic mother and a crippled sister will oppress him for the rest of his life. Like his mother and sister Jim too, needs illusions to make reality more bearable. He is six years out of school and is still literally nowhere in his chosen career. So his illusion becomes the dream that the cycle of democracy will catapult him to success; all he has to do is somehow catch on. His talk bubbles with confidence, but it is a confidence born of anxiety and depression. The great dream of opportunity is an illusion; the Depression which is blocking Jim’s hopes is reality. In the final analysis, he is the fourth of a quartet caught between illusions and realities, attempting to use the former to stave off the crushing finality of the latter. (Bloom, p.20)

The Glass Menagerie is built upon more than the poignant plot of illusion and frustration in the lives of little people. Williams has given the drama further significance by deepening the losses of individuals and pointing to social and even spiritual catastrophe. The life of illusion is not confined to the Wingfields alone. As Tom says ,” The huge middle class of America was matriculating in a school for the blind.” What he calls the “social background” of the play has tremendous importance. Amanda’s anxieties are in large part economic and there is money behind many of her illusions.

The Glass Menagerie exhibits several of William’s strengths as a playwright. The great strength of the play is the delicate, sympathetic, yet objective creation of meaningful people in a meaningful situation. William captures a decisive and desperate moment in the lives of four individuals and given it illumination and a sense of profound meaning. His characters are not equally realized. While Amanda, Tom, and Jim are complex, multiple dimension characters, Laura seems to exist on a single dimension, that of sympathy. Tennessee Williams uses disintegration of a family, loneliness, and reality as themes to show the slow destruction of a family in The Glass Menagerie. Although The Glass Menagerie is essentially a tragic story, it is shown through the three themes that the play is an excellent piece of literature that shows the gradual and oblique destruction of a family.

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My cases all involve husbands who have been charged with killing their wives. Of the three cases, two involve celebrities. O.J. Simpson, who’s trial was known to be the crime of the century, was charged with the brutal murder of his ex-wife and a male friend at her Brentwood Estate; Robert Blake, whose trial has not started but who prosecutors say was angry that he was trapped into a marriage due to his wife’s pregnancy; Scott Peterson, who is charged with murdering his wife and their unborn son.

In the murder of Nicole Brown Simpson, she was found sprawled face down, left cheek pressing into the ground, her right leg jack-knifed under the gate frame to the left and her buttocks pressed up against the first riser of the four steps that led up to the path leading to the front door of the condominium. Mr. Simpson, being the ex-husband was a potential suspect rather than an actual suspect since at the time there was nothing linking him to the scene of the crime. But what would lead this professional football player, who was inducted into the NFL Hall of Fame, to a murderer?

Orenthal James Simpson was born July 9, 1947. When he was 2 years old he contracted rickets and had to wear braces on his legs until the age of five. When he was thirteen, he was in a gang named the Persian Warriors and when he was 15, he spent time in custody at the San Francisco Youth Guidance Center. On top of all that, his father left his mother for another man and died of AIDS. Could his childhood have affected his manhood? While married to his wife there were numerous occasions where domestic violence was concerned. Is a matter of fact, by the time of the murder trial, the prosecution had sixty-two separate incidents of physical and mental abuse. It was also said that Mr. Simpson could of been suffering from “Othello Syndrome”, a paranoid psychosis characterized by “intense jealousy of a spouse and delusions of infidelity, often leading to violence.“ All in all, Mr. Simpson was found not guilty, but with all the publicity from this case, it seemed more like can a black celebrity get off in a legal system created by and widely administered by whites.

Ms. Bakley was shot in the head outside an Italian restaurant while sitting in Mr. Blake’s car. Mr. Blake said he left her in the car because he left his gun in the restaurant. Earlier that day Mr. Blake, who was a regular and requested the same table all the time, made reservations at Vitello’s Restaurant. But this time he asked for a different table and when he walked in the restaurant he introduced Ms. Bakley as his wife. Employees at the restaurant didn’t even know Mr. Blake was married. According to one patron they said during the meal, Mr. Blake was seen in the bathroom vomiting. After their meal they left and later on Mr. Blake returned asking about his gun. When he returned to his car, he found his wife dead.

Ms. Bakley, who had many aliases, had a criminal record. Also was known to have burned men. Does this damage her character? Or can this be a reason defense counsel uses to prove Mr. Blake’s innocence, claiming it could of been a past love?

Born Michael Gubitosi in 1933 but changed his name to Robert Blake, his father brutally abused him because of resentment to his son’s success. To get away from his father he joined the Army but was discharged. From there Mr. Blake began using and selling drugs. Could a childhood of abuse from a parent lead someone to commit a crime? The trial for Mr. Blake has not been set but in due time we shall see.

Laci and Connor Peterson were found on the shores of San Francisco Bay. At the time of Ms. Petersons’ disappearance she was eight months pregnant. On the day of her disappearance, Mr. Peterson told police that the last time he saw his wife is when he was leaving to go on a fishing trip. He said she had plans to do her normal routine but when he came home that night she was gone. Weeks into the investigation, police found out that Mr. Peterson was having an affair and had taken a $250,000 life insurance policy out on his wife. Mr. Peterson broke his virtual silence with several television interviews acknowledging the affair, but denying it had anything to do with his wife’s disappearance. He said they had a “glorious” marriage, and his wife knew about the affair and had made her peace with the relationship.
Scott Peterson was born in San Diego in 1972. He was the youngest of five boys. He had a happy, healthy childhood and got plenty of attention. He attended Arizona State University on a partial golf scholarship but ended up at California Polytechnic State University. Mr. Petersons’ childhood is very different from Mr. Simpson’s and Mr. Blake’s. He had a “normal” childhood. So what could have happened to this man that would have him on trial for the murder of his wife and unborn son? Could it have been the extramarital affair? Or was it the root to all evil? The $250,000 life insurance policy he and laci had two years prior to her murder?

Each of the cases I have mentioned above concern individuals with different upbringings. For this reason different criminological theories apply. In the case of Mr. Simpson, I think Eysenck’s Conditioning Theory would apply to him. In this theory, human personality may be seen in three dimensions- psychoticism, extroversion and neuroticism. Psychoticism deals with aggressive, egocentric, and impulsive behaviors. Mr. Simpson had a history of domestic violence. Extroversion consist of sensation-seeking, dominant, and assertiveness. This can also include domestic violence. Domestic violence is a control issue, being DOMINANT over the weak individual. Neuroticism may be described as having low self-esteem, excessive anxiety, and mood swings. Mr. Simpson was in a gang when he was younger and most young adults join gangs because of low-self esteem, wanting to feel like they belong to something.
Mr. Blake’s case I would say consist of Maternal Deprivation and Attachment Theory. He was brutally abused as a child by his father which means that he had no warm, loving and emotional bond with his father. In our book it only mentions a relationship with a mother or mother figure but I find that discriminating because father’s can be warm, caring and loving also. So this is why I chose this theory for Mr. Blake’s case.

For Mr. Peterson’s case I chose General Strain Theory. His strain caused by the presentation of positively valued stimuli. His wife knew of the affair he was having, and though he says she came to peace with that, she might have always brought it up leading him to believe she really couldn’t handle the fact and wanted to go their separate ways. This type of strain results from the actual or anticipated loss of something or someone important in one’s life. He probably anticipated a divorce and didn’t want to go through that. Mr. Peterson’s case is still in process so just as Mr. Blake’s, we will have to wait and see.

Preventive measures in dealing with these kinds of crimes is hard. Why? Because a person is “molded” from birth. Police officers, lawyers, prosecutors, judges, the law cannot prevent or stop a criminal or crime by themselves. Everything comes down to the home front. Are the parents giving the child the love but discipline that they need to deal with life and society? If a parent doesn’t do anything but abuse a child that is all a child knows, and eventually the child will want to release that rage within him/herself. At the same time a child needs discipline and guidance. If a parent lets their child roam the streets at all times of the day and night, the child will learn from their peers, they will want to be part of the “crew”, they will want to be “down”. Parents need to step up to the plate and be a parent first and a friend later. Now a days so many young teenage girls are becoming mothers when they are still a child themselves. So how can they provide for a baby? They still want to go hang out and have fun. So what happens is a never ending cycle of kids having kids. How can we have a productive society like that? We can’t until there is a change in the value of life and morals. This can only be done from the home front…from family.

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In order to observe how people and children shopped for toys, I went to the Toys R Us in Nashua, NH, on a Saturday afternoon, because I thought it would be busy. Upon first entering the store I was in the infant/toddler section. This section was not divided by sex. Many of the toys were neutrally colored and marketed towards both sexes. Occasionally there would be a pink toy, which was specifically for girls, but overall there was a uni-sex feeling in that section.

The next section is what I would call the educational section of the toy store. The toys in this section are things like board games, Lego’s, books, school supplies, arts and crafts supplies, computer software etc. While most of the merchandise in this section did not depict a direct separation of the sexes, there are a few special cases that I noted. The first one was the school supplies. The row of school supplies was divided in half, with one side marketed towards girls, and the other towards boys. Much of the supplies had themes to them. Some of the female themes were Barbie, and Brittany Spears. The male themes were things like the Hulk, and the Power Rangers. The building blocks, such as leggos, and the miniature scale models were almost all boy themed. The Lego sets, showed pictures of astronaut, motor cycles, cars/trucks, and tanks. The models were mostly of cars and planes, specifically but not limited too, fighter planes, and planes of war. The arts and crafts section was specifically marketed towards girls. Much of the merchandise was paints and kits in which you could design your own purse or t-shirt. The section containing board games was not divided by sex, but rather by age. There were sections of games for adults, and sections for children. Adult board games were often trivia games. While a few gender specific board games were there, the majority of games would be just as likely to be played with by a boy or a girl.

The next section was unmistakably the girl’s section. About 90% of the merchandise was pink or had a pink box. There are a variety of different dolls. Some are Barbie dolls, or similar looking dolls. There are also a large section of baby dolls, most of which are female. The dolls were almost always smiling. The other type of toy that comprised the girl’s selection is the kitchen/house ware toys. This includes toys such as play ovens and stoves.

On the other side of the large isle, opposite the girl’s section, was the boy’s section. Unlike the girl’s section, there was not a dominating color. There is barely any, if any pink in the boy’s section however. I did not notice an abundance of noise coming from the boy’s section. The toys in the boys section were much more diverse than the girls. There are countless types of action figures available from various themes such as professional sports, military, movies, and television. A lot of the toys in this section had stickers that said, “try me”, or “press here to test”. The action figures ranged in sizes from as small as a few inches, to as large as a foot or more. The action figures typically did not have smiling faces, rather they had no expression or expressions of aggressiveness and rage. To go along with the action figures, there are many accessory packs, which are usually weapons. Along with weapons for the action figures them selves, there is also toy weapons for kids such as swords and guns. Another category of toys in the boy’s section is the tools and construction toys. The toy tools are very realistic and some times even display real tool brand names on them such as Home Depot. The constructions toys are mainly vehicles that are specific to construction, such as dump trucks and cranes. The sporting goods section is just an extension of the boy’s section. Most of the equipment was marketed towards boys, such as baseball, basketball, football, and hockey equipment. The few products in that section which would appeal to girls are roller blades, and scooters.

After going through the various sections of the store and noting the toy types, I began to focus on the customers. I witnessed what I perceived as a father shopping with his two sons and one daughter. The father was paying attention to the younger of his sons, but I noticed something about the other son and the daughter. They were both riding tricycles. The daughter was riding a pink and purple tricycle with tassels on the handlebars and other various decorations. The boy was riding a red tricycle with chrome high lights and much less decoration than the girl’s bike. The second interaction I witnessed was a father and son who were walking through the boy’s section. The father had to repeatedly tell the son “lets go”, because the son would start playing with the toys, and at one point sat down in the middle of the floor to do so. In this case the father was trying to leave, but the son would get easily distracted while surrounded by the toys. My next interaction took place in the girl’s section. A mother and father were shopping with their son and daughter. The mother and the daughter were just walking down the isle looking at the merchandise, while the father and son were waiting at the end and showed no interest or awareness of the toys present in the isle.

From the articles and my observation in the toy store I have come to a few conclusions. First, there are gender specific toys, and the ways the toys are marketed seem to increase the gender gap. All of the toys that the article claimed to make children smarter, such as building materials, were marketed towards boys. The boy toys had much more moving parts, and often required the ability to manipulate objects well in order to use them. On the other hand the girls section is teaching the girls how too cook, shop, and take care of babies, which is the traditional role of the woman.

My second conclusion is that boy’s toys are much more entertaining than girl’s toys. While walking threw the store, I had no interest in playing with any of the toys in the girls section, and quite a bit of interest in the boy’s section. I further reinforced this by the lack of customers in the girl’s section. It was by far the least populated area of the toy store. Also, by the amount of girls that were shopping in the boy’s section of the store. At one point I saw a girl, who might have looked like a tomboy, purchasing a laser tag set.

The variety and selection of the boy’s section dwarfed that of the girl’s section. The girls section had two main categories of toys: dolls and cooking toys. The boys section had many more categories and it physically took up close to twice the floor space of the girls section. This leads me to believe that either boy’s play with toys more than girls do, or that girls choose to play with boy toys rather than girl toys. Another piece of evidence that led me to believe that boys play with toys more than girls is the fact that the boys section of the toy store was much messier than the girls section. Boys are more likely to grab things off the shelf and start playing with them right then and there rather than the girls. Some types of toys seem to be exclusively marketed towards boys. For instance the video game section (previously unmentioned) is marketed almost if not all towards that of boys. I could not find one video game that I would consider a girl oriented video game.

From my study I feel that the toy companies are not putting the effort and attention into designing toys specifically for girls. It is basically an equal rights issue in my mind. Girls are being unfairly treated in the toy market, and are sometimes maybe forced to play with toys designed for boys, because they do not happen to like the few boring toys that are designed for girls. The toy industry is thus increasing the gender gap.

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When is it right? Most people make a decision about when to have sex for the first time. Part of the decision is asking questions about many parts of sex. There are also questions about the responsibilities and the risks involved with sex. Sex is a pleasurable and exciting part of life. Some risks and problems of sexual activity that affect the body are unprotected sex, disease, or pregnancy. Being able to communicate about such risks and problems is an equally important part of sexual readiness. A teen who is ready for sexual activity needs to understand STDs and be prepared to prevent their spread. Using condoms during sexual activity can be a healthy choice. Females are biologically more likely than males to get an STD (Sexual Readiness, 2000). This is because of the way the female body is built. The germs that cause STDs have more places to linger and cause problems in the female body. They must also understand the risks of sex while under the influence of alcohol or other drugs. The combination of alcohol and other drugs with sexual activity is dangerous. Using alcohol and other drugs makes it difficult for a person to think clearly. For example, a couple may not use protection during sex, or a drunk or high partner may not respect the other partner’s sexual limits. A Sexual relationship involves many emotions. Choosing to be part of any relationship can be an emotional risk. When sex is involved, the emotional risk can increase because sex can change a relationship. Teens who learn to understand and express their emotions are preparing for sexual readiness. Another part of being ready for a sexual relationship is setting limits and standards for yourself. Limits are boundaries, or points beyond which someone will not go. Standards are expectations of how a relationship should be. It is important to decide how far you are willing to go before any sexual activity takes place. For couples who choose to engage in sexual intercourse, communication is especially important. Communicating about possible outcomes before they happen is important. For example, couples should discuss the method of protection they will use and how they will deal with a possible pregnancy before they have sexual intercourse. Willingness to take responsibility is a sign that a person is ready for a sexual relationship. Responsibility involves establishing, keeping, and respecting sexual limits and standards. Most teens are physically ready to have sexual intercourse at a young age. However, physical ability is only part of being ready to have sex. Being ready for a sexual relationship in all other ways should be a thoughtful, multiple-step process. It is normal for this process to happen over a period of time rather that all at once.

Below is a checklist of questions you should ask yourself to judge your own sexual readiness (www.thinkagain.ca ):

• Do I feel pressured?
• Do I have to “prove” that I love my partner?
• Have I thought about how sex might change the way I feel about myself?
• Will sex change my relationship?
• Do I feel comfortable with my body and how it works?
• Can I openly discuss feelings with my partner without feeling scared or embarrassed?
• Do I understand that unprotected sex may result in a possible pregnancy or STDs?
• Will I buy and use protection during sexual activity?
• Do I think this will be a fun and pleasurable experience for me?
• How does having sex fit with my beliefs?

According to one survey, teens today learn about sex from the following sources: friends – 45%, television – 29%, parents – 7%, and sex-education classes – 3% (Teen Sex, 2002). Children and teens learn about sexuality from their peers, or people their own age. Peer influences on sexuality begin in childhood. Children learn what boys do and what girls do through their play activities. Children put pressure on each other to act and dress in certain ways. They may tease or ridicule a child who doesn’t fit their idea of masculine or feminine. Peer influences become strongest during teen years. Teens look to their peer group for support as they begin the process of separating from their family. Friends and classmates influence teen sexuality in several ways. They usually have sharply defined gender roles and rules about sexuality, they may give information about sex, but it may not always be correct, and friends may try to pressure others into having sex. Influences from the media. The media includes television, movies, newspapers, magazines, books, advertising, and, most recently, the Internet. The Media often encourages unhealthy sexual attitudes and behaviours among teens. Teens today live in a world in which sex is everywhere. It appears on billboards, in the lyrics to popular songs, and in newspaper headlines. Nowhere is sex more common than on television. According to one estimate, TV exposes the average teen to 14,000 sexual messages each year (Changing Bodies, Changing Lives, 1998). On MTV, 75% of the videos that tell a story use sexual images. Over half involve violence, and 80% combine sex and violence (Sex, 2000). The sexual content of TV shows, movies, music videos, and other media may be direct or indirect. There may be scenes of couples kissing passionately, taking off each other’s clothes, and preparing for intercourse. This is direct, in-your-face sex. Indirect content includes comedians making jokes about sex or talk show hosts discussing the sex lives of their guests. Sexual scenes in the media usually feature young and attractive people. They may have just met. These people rarely discuss the possibility of an unplanned pregnancy or an STD. Teens may view sex as something couples automatically do in a relationship and may believe that having sex will make them seem mature. Teens may learn a great deal about the physical side of sexual intercourse from the media. However, TV shows and movies usually don’t show how sex affects people emotionally and the importance of respect and communication in a relationship. Parents and other caregivers play a major part in shaping a child’s sexuality. They help to establish the child’s gender identity and gender role and teach attitudes about sex and sexual behaviour. Parents begin the process of gender identity b giving their newborn a “girl’s” name or a “boy’s” name. Parents teach gender roles by the toys they give their children and through household tasks. Many of today’s parents avoid following traditional ideas of masculine and feminine. Parents have many opportunities to influence their children’s attitude toward sexuality. Their words and behaviour can contribute to either healthy or unhealthy sexual attitudes. Ideas learned as a child may stay with a person for the rest of his or her life. Parents can have a big influence on sexual behaviour of their teen children. Teens have many questions about dating, romantic relationships, sex, and birth control. They often want help setting limits on sexual activity and saying no to pressure to have sex. Most teens would like to be able to talk with their parents about these matters. Children and teens may learn about sexuality through formal, or planned, sex-education instruction. However, they are more likely to learn about sexuality indirectly from teachers, textbooks, and school activities. Several studies have shown that teachers, educational materials, and school activities influence students’ gender identity and role(Sex 2000). Knowing about influences on sexuality is important for everyone. It’s especially important for teens because they are at a critical stage in their sexual development.

Couples who decide to have sexual intercourse must protect themselves against unplanned pregnancy and STDs. Both partners must take responsibility. If a couple can’t talk about birth control and protection, they should think again about having sex. Many methods of birth control are available. Two main groups are over-the-counter methods and prescription methods. A few over-the-counter methods also protect against STDs. Over-the-counter birth control and protection can be purchased without a doctor’s prescription. It’s available in places such as drugstores and supermarkets, and are inexpensive and easy to use. They include: male and female condoms, spermicides, and dental dams. The male condom is a latex or soft plastic covering that fits over the erect penis during vaginal, oral, and anal intercourse. Male condoms are 98% effective in preventing pregnancy when used correctly with every act of intercourse. The latex condom protects against certain STDs, including HIV. For this reason, they are strongly recommended for use with other birth control methods. The female condom is a soft plastic pouch that fits inside the vagina. The open end remains outside the vagina for the penis to enter. Female condoms are from 79% – 95% effective in preventing pregnancy. Their effectiveness in preventing STDs is not known. Spermicides include foam, creams or gels, suppositories, and contraceptive film. They are inserted into the vagina. Spermicides are best used as backup protection with male condoms, diaphragms, and cervical caps. They may provide some protection against certain STDs, but this needs more research. The dental dam is a silky, thin latex material that protects against STDs during oral-vaginal or oral-anal sex. A person can lick or kiss through the dam. Prescription birth control must be obtained from a health care professional. Generally, a female first must have a pelvic exam(examination of the reproductive organs). Prescription birth control includes: birth control pills, Depo-Provera, Norplant, diaphragms, and cervical caps. None of these methods protect against STDs. Birth control pills when taken exactly as prescribed, prevent pregnancy almost 99% of the time. They are convenient to use but because they are drugs birth control pills can cause side effects. Depo-Provera is a birth control shot. Every 12 weeks, the female gets a shot in the arm or buttock. Depo-Provera is almost 100% effective in preventing pregnancy, but can also cause side effects. Norplant consists of 6 rubbery capsules. Each capsule is about 1 inch long. A doctor inserts the capsules on the underside of a females upper arm. Norplant is nearly 100% effective in preventing pregnancy. Protection lasts for five years. A diaphragm is a latex cup worn inside the vagina during sex. A doctor or nurse fits a female with a diaphragm. It should be used with a spermicidal cream or gel to be most effective in preventing pregnancy. Without spermicide, a diaphragm is only 82% effective. With spermicide, this figure raises to 94%. A cervical cap is like a diaphragm, only smaller. It fits more tightly over the cervix than a diaphragm does. The cervix is the opening between the vagina and the uterus. The uterus is the hollow organ when an unborn baby develops. When used with spermicide, cervical caps are 91% effective in preventing pregnancy. That concludes the two main groups of birth control, leaving adolescents and adults with many options.

The large, complicated, and interrelated accumulation of factors suggest that the course that leads to adolescent sexual activity and pregnancy is complex. Not merely one or two, but a multitude of antecedents are related to one or more sexual behaviours and pregnancy, including characteristics of the teens themselves, their peers and sexual partners, their families and their communities and states. The decision is yours.

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Introduction
Water has always been issue in California. For years, there is a constant battle about the distribution of water because of the water shortages in the South. The issue will never be resolve, but there is another issue at large, and it is water contamination. The Sacramento River is one of the biggest river dams that provide water for Northern California. Unfortunately, the water quality in the Sacramento River is not good. Its water pollution problems are not getting any better but worse. For years, scientists have wanted to know what the causes of the contamination in our water are so that they would know how to treat the problem and not let it become a health hazard to the public. Water contamination is not only bad for its two million plus consumers, but it is also affecting the wildlife. The destruction of the marine wildlife has turned many heads, and its attention to this matter has been undivided. The current problems with our water resources are that it is destroying the marine wildlife, and it is contaminated, but there have been many precautions that have been taken into consideration when dealing with the water in our area.

How Water Contamination Begins
Contamination is caused by many different factors. Pollution or contamination does not necessarily means that it is caused by toxic waste, but rather it can be caused by other factors. In the Journal of Geochemical Exploration, the researcher, Joseph L. Domagalski, found that “In previous years, the concentrations of pesticides used on rice were sufficiently high to affect the health of aquatic life in streams draining the rice growing areas and to contribute to taste and odor problems for treated drinking water withdrawn from the lower Sacramento River” (Domagalski 271). One of the ways that contamination is caused as explained by the author is that it is derived from agricultural waste. Any kind of wastes are harmful all together. Once the wastes are in our water, it affects our drinking water quality as well as the water quality for the aquatic life. The reason that pesticides are so hazardous is because it eventually produces Phosphorus in our water (Domagalski 273). Phosphorus causes plants from not growing and even aquatic life from reproducing. Any element is a health hazard to human altogether, but it may causes brain damage in infants if in our water, and it may causes nutrient (iron, protein, etc.) deficiency in our body. Agricultural pesticides are the number one pollutant in the Sacramento River. Another form of contamination is mining. “Mercury from historic mining activities has been a prevalent problem of the Sacramento River Basin and downstream location” (Domagalski 282). Mercury is derived from metals, and the metals are derived from previous mining activities that started in 1849 by the gold mining community. Mercury is not as dangerous as other elements because it is in our water for quite some time, but may causes health hazards to both human and aquatic life just like any other element or toxin.

Water Quality Prevents Reproduction
One reason that we need to protect the low water quality in the Sacramento River is destroying the aquatic life by not allowing them to reproduce. Human destroying the quality of life of helpless creatures has always been an issue, but when it comes close to home like in the Sacramento area, it causes an even bigger controversy. Michael Black the author of the article “Tragic remedies: A century of failed fishery policy on California’s Sacramento River,” argued that the water contamination in the Sacramento River is causing a big controversy because it prevents the aquatic life from reproducing. Black wrote: “Salmonid fish reproduce in mountain streams, with subsequent migration to marine waters and final migration back to the mountain streams for reproduction. Water management projects due to cleaning the water from contamination (reservoirs and dams) have blocked the normal migration routes, forcing fish to move to less desirable habitats, thus affecting their reproduction” (Black 37). When we clean or try to dispose our water from toxic exposure, it affects the aquatic life because we have to close off water ways in order to dispose of it. When we close off the water ways, the aquatic life has no where to go thus it prevents them from reproducing, which in turn might cause extinction of that species. Contamination is the leading cause of aquatic deaths, but closing of the dams and not allowing the animals to reproduce to just as serious.

Hope for Clean Water
Environmental activist groups help clear pollution by advocating the rights of animals and the poor condition of the animals. In the study by Diana Murr called “Threatened Status Eyed for Selected Salmonids,” the author wrote that activists groups are “pressing for propositions to pass in order to assure the health and safety of the marine animals being harmed by toxic wastes and other despicable chemical that may pollute the water quality or harm the quality of life of these animals” (Murr 20). The activists worked to ensure better water quality conditions for the protection of these animals. The conditions did get better by now allowing any illegal toxic dumping into the Sacramento River. Also, acts that have been passed “monitor the use of agricultural chemicals to keep them out or rivers and streams” as explained by Barbara J. Milby Dawson, the researcher of the study “Ground-Water Quality in the Southeastern Sacramento Valley Aquifer, California, 1996.” Many laws had been passed with the efforts of these animals rights activists, and they are continuing to do so some more. The water quality did improve by 25%, an improvement from 1996, which was eight years ago (Dawson). Not only did the activists pass laws that protect these aquatic animals, but they also protect us from the water contamination in the river. Without them, we would still be using polluted water.

Counterargument
Despite my position that contamination is the leading cause of poor quality of life of both human and aquatic life, my opponent believes that contamination is not the problem but rather the shortages of water. In the article “California Water War’s Moment of Truce” by Daniel B. Wood, he argues that “The stakes are large: 75 percent of the state’s water are in the North, thus the shortage of water in the South threatened the water use in homes, industries, farms, cities, and wildlife” (Wood 4). Yes, water shortage is a problem in the State of California, but is not the problem that the quality of life of both human and wildlife is poor. Contamination and to how get rid of it is much more important than the amount of water that we have. We can have all the water in the world, but contamination is what really matters because it is hazardous to our health. We rather have clean water than a large amount water to live on.

Evaluations
While evaluating my sources that I had used in this essay, I find that there some flaws and strong points in each sources that I had used. While I have provided support for how contamination begins in the Sacramento River by the mining communities and also from agricultural wastes, I find that the source I used for support for my argument is weak because this article by Domagalski is about how we kill the plants and animals. Domagalski stated that mercury and phosphorous are the only two elements that can contribute to the deaths of the plants and animals. What Domagalski fail to mention is that methane gas, crude oil, and toxic wastes also contribute to the destruction of these species. He focused his attention to the two elements in his article. He needs to expand to other factors that could or might contribute the pollution of the water. The next source that I used was by Michael Black. In Black’s article, he talked about how the poor water quality that leads to the prevention of the aquatic animals of reproducing. Due to the poor water quality, the dam had to be shut down and block to be cleaned. When this happens, it blocks the fishes from coming in which prevent them from having a place to reproduce. The flaw with this article is that it is too old. Even though the article was published in 1995, a newer source had confirmed that the blocking of the dam had nothing to do with the fish’s ability of reproduce. This source that confirmed it was in Dawson’s article (24). In Dawson’s article, the researcher argued that the reason that many fish do not reproduce is the water quality. When the water is polluted, this prevents them from reproducing because they get killed and there are not more mates for them. Black should not have based that the blockage of the dam is the reason for not reproducing. Also, there is no scientific evidence that the blocking of the dam causes the low reproduction rate of the animals. In Daniel B. Woods’ article, he argued that the reason why the aquatic animals are dying is because of the shortage of water. California is known to have a shortage of water for quite some time, and he had based his assumption that the reason why animals are dying is the lack of water. The flaw in this article is the lack of scientific evidence. There is no scientific proof that maybe even one of the reasons that the animals die is because of the lack of water. These aquatic animals live in the water in the river, so a river should not run out of water so low that it would wipe out an entire species. Wood based his support based on his own assumption because in the article, he did not mention any data or research that was conducted to support his reasoning.

Rebuttal
Despite the flaws of the articles that had been discuss, these articles still prove to be reliable. Domagalski’s article about only two elements being the contributor to the pollution in the water is reliable because phosphorous and mercury do prove to be fatal elements in water. These elements are toxic chemical that do destroy the quality of water and are harmful to one’s health. In Black’s article, he argued that the closing of dams prevent the animals from reproducing. This is true because animals do need their space and area to reproduce in their own environment. Animals would not like to reproduce in an area that they are not use to. Plus, the cleaning of the dam is for the animals benefit because we do not want the animals to be in polluted unsafe water. Even though the article was old, it did apply back then when the article was first published. Lastly, in Woods’ article, the author argued that the shortage of water causes the animals to die. This is true because if a place does have anymore water or the water had been evaporated from the place, then the animals would die because these animals need water to live in. Without water, then they would not be able to swim and live.

Conclusion
The problem of contamination is not something that is new in our water, but it started way back then when humans first came over to the land mines. Even though the mining activities have calmed down in last few decades, the mark that they left affects us all in numerous ways today. Contamination in our water destroys aquatic life because it causes a halt in reproduction for the animals, and of course it kills them at the same time. To have a species not reproduce is a serious problem because it may cause extinction. Contamination ruins our (human) quality life by adding unnecessary elements such as phosphorous and mercury to our water, both elements are known to be hazardous to our health. It does not matter about the amount of water that we have, but what really matters is the quality of the water. We cannot live with contaminated water.

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