There are four basic elements that are used in studying a discipline. They are conception, material field, methodologies, and subject-matter claims. Conceptions create images for structure and dynamics underlying observable phenomena. A discipline’s material field is the common-sense principality of objects and events that the discipline studies. Methodologies establish images of safe procedure and a clear conclusion by which a material field may be understood. Methodologies prescribe specific methods for collecting data that are used to evaluate a discipline’s conception. Subject matter claims are highly selective pictures of its material field that are made from inferences drawn out of individual methodological rules for the purpose of evaluating particular conceptions.

Eleanor Smith Bowen’s book, Return to Laughter takes a fictional approach to her study of the Tiv culture. She is an Anthropologist who examines the “rules of right behavior” as functions in the Tiv culture of West Africa. The material field of Bowen’s anthropological study is observing the Tiv people’s pattern of behavior in their everyday life. Some limitations to anthropology are that descriptions of the rules are reached with biased emotions, and you can’t do controlled experiments because it is real life. When anthropologists are participating with members of the culture, their own views and opinions become obstacles that get in the way of being objective. The conceptions (or culture) are learned through the rules of right behavior. An example of a rule of right behavior in the Tiv culture was laughing at disabled people. That behavior was extremely appalling to Bowen yet, it is a behavior that was acceptable in the Tiv culture. This is an example of how thick culture really does cut. Bowen learned the patterns of the Tiv people by using the methodology of participant observation. In order to thoroughly understand the culture and its people, Bowen had to assume the role of every possible member in society. She was her own best instrumental tool. In being assigned different names by the tribe, she was able to see what is expected from people of different social positions. As well as how the Tiv people interact with and treat individuals from different social positions. In making inferences from her experiences, Bowen arrived to her subject matter claims that the Tiv cultures focal point was witchcraft. The other was that older is more powerful and that power was cast in the male kindred line. It was a way of explaining the unexplained to the Tiv. It gave the Tiv a sense of hope and control, which showed they seriously, believed that’s the way it is; things happen for a reason. Bowen, in her study, was practicing normal science. She did not seem to be very innovative in her methods.

Peter Berger examines sociology and social structure in his book Invitation to Sociology. Sociologists study the functions of a population that function by specialization, and categorize members into groups that accomplish tasks in society. The material field is the study of a large population of people. This structure of society is thought to be an instrument of human adaptive behavior. The things that make up this structure must be different. Throughout history, structure endures a cycle of repetition. Roles are designed to establish social structure. The role provides a pattern to which the individual acts in a particular situation. Sociology’s conceptions is composed of a collection of like beings of the same kind, whose members live in a high state of interdependency, and who appear to be bent on enduring over time. Members of society find it necessary to seek the behaviors of others in order to satisfy their own wants and needs. They are not able to satisfy these needs on there own as individuals. In order for interdependency to work, it is important for members not to be carbon copies of each other. The limitations of sociology is that interdependency appears to relinquish freedom of choice. However, if freedom of choice were to be utilized by everyone the social system would break down. The methodologies used to study populations are survey research and experiments. This type of methodology can be difficult because it is impossible for every person within the population to be surveyed. Therefore, it is hard to be certain that it is an accurate demographic representation of the large society. The information collected from the surveys and experiments are formulated as the final outcome for the subject matter claims.

Anthropological and sociological sciences share similarities regarding material field and conceptions. The material field is objects and events that the discipline studies. An example of material field in anthropology was the small group of Tiv people that Bowen observed. The material field for sociology is a study of a large population. Conceptions in the study of anthropology consist of culture, which is the set of rules of right behavior that is shared by the people under study. These rules are shared and transmitted over generations. In sociology conceptions include a population in a high state of interdependency, which is built on trust. These studies involve examining people functioning in social systems, with an emphasis on external differentiation.

Anthropology and sociology have differences in the forms of methodologies.

Methodologies are specific methods for gathering data that can be used to evaluate conceptions of a discipline. Anthropology’s method of study is participant observation. The anthropologist observes a culture by participating as a member. Sociology utilizes survey research as a preferred methodology. This type of research includes questionnaires that are administered to carefully selected samples in the society under research.

The social sciences consist of different disciplines in which each studies certain aspects of the human adaptive behavior. Each discipline is geared to look at the pattern and diversity of humans in different ways, by asking different questions and using different material fields and methods. The conceptions, material field, methodologies and subject matter claims help to formulate scientific information as well as ideologies of human adaptive behavior. As has been shown, anthropology and sociology contain similarities as well as differences in their practices.

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In order to observe how people and children shopped for toys, I went to the Toys R Us in Nashua, NH, on a Saturday afternoon, because I thought it would be busy. Upon first entering the store I was in the infant/toddler section. This section was not divided by sex. Many of the toys were neutrally colored and marketed towards both sexes. Occasionally there would be a pink toy, which was specifically for girls, but overall there was a uni-sex feeling in that section.

The next section is what I would call the educational section of the toy store. The toys in this section are things like board games, Lego’s, books, school supplies, arts and crafts supplies, computer software etc. While most of the merchandise in this section did not depict a direct separation of the sexes, there are a few special cases that I noted. The first one was the school supplies. The row of school supplies was divided in half, with one side marketed towards girls, and the other towards boys. Much of the supplies had themes to them. Some of the female themes were Barbie, and Brittany Spears. The male themes were things like the Hulk, and the Power Rangers. The building blocks, such as leggos, and the miniature scale models were almost all boy themed. The Lego sets, showed pictures of astronaut, motor cycles, cars/trucks, and tanks. The models were mostly of cars and planes, specifically but not limited too, fighter planes, and planes of war. The arts and crafts section was specifically marketed towards girls. Much of the merchandise was paints and kits in which you could design your own purse or t-shirt. The section containing board games was not divided by sex, but rather by age. There were sections of games for adults, and sections for children. Adult board games were often trivia games. While a few gender specific board games were there, the majority of games would be just as likely to be played with by a boy or a girl.

The next section was unmistakably the girl’s section. About 90% of the merchandise was pink or had a pink box. There are a variety of different dolls. Some are Barbie dolls, or similar looking dolls. There are also a large section of baby dolls, most of which are female. The dolls were almost always smiling. The other type of toy that comprised the girl’s selection is the kitchen/house ware toys. This includes toys such as play ovens and stoves.

On the other side of the large isle, opposite the girl’s section, was the boy’s section. Unlike the girl’s section, there was not a dominating color. There is barely any, if any pink in the boy’s section however. I did not notice an abundance of noise coming from the boy’s section. The toys in the boys section were much more diverse than the girls. There are countless types of action figures available from various themes such as professional sports, military, movies, and television. A lot of the toys in this section had stickers that said, “try me”, or “press here to test”. The action figures ranged in sizes from as small as a few inches, to as large as a foot or more. The action figures typically did not have smiling faces, rather they had no expression or expressions of aggressiveness and rage. To go along with the action figures, there are many accessory packs, which are usually weapons. Along with weapons for the action figures them selves, there is also toy weapons for kids such as swords and guns. Another category of toys in the boy’s section is the tools and construction toys. The toy tools are very realistic and some times even display real tool brand names on them such as Home Depot. The constructions toys are mainly vehicles that are specific to construction, such as dump trucks and cranes. The sporting goods section is just an extension of the boy’s section. Most of the equipment was marketed towards boys, such as baseball, basketball, football, and hockey equipment. The few products in that section which would appeal to girls are roller blades, and scooters.

After going through the various sections of the store and noting the toy types, I began to focus on the customers. I witnessed what I perceived as a father shopping with his two sons and one daughter. The father was paying attention to the younger of his sons, but I noticed something about the other son and the daughter. They were both riding tricycles. The daughter was riding a pink and purple tricycle with tassels on the handlebars and other various decorations. The boy was riding a red tricycle with chrome high lights and much less decoration than the girl’s bike. The second interaction I witnessed was a father and son who were walking through the boy’s section. The father had to repeatedly tell the son “lets go”, because the son would start playing with the toys, and at one point sat down in the middle of the floor to do so. In this case the father was trying to leave, but the son would get easily distracted while surrounded by the toys. My next interaction took place in the girl’s section. A mother and father were shopping with their son and daughter. The mother and the daughter were just walking down the isle looking at the merchandise, while the father and son were waiting at the end and showed no interest or awareness of the toys present in the isle.

From the articles and my observation in the toy store I have come to a few conclusions. First, there are gender specific toys, and the ways the toys are marketed seem to increase the gender gap. All of the toys that the article claimed to make children smarter, such as building materials, were marketed towards boys. The boy toys had much more moving parts, and often required the ability to manipulate objects well in order to use them. On the other hand the girls section is teaching the girls how too cook, shop, and take care of babies, which is the traditional role of the woman.

My second conclusion is that boy’s toys are much more entertaining than girl’s toys. While walking threw the store, I had no interest in playing with any of the toys in the girls section, and quite a bit of interest in the boy’s section. I further reinforced this by the lack of customers in the girl’s section. It was by far the least populated area of the toy store. Also, by the amount of girls that were shopping in the boy’s section of the store. At one point I saw a girl, who might have looked like a tomboy, purchasing a laser tag set.

The variety and selection of the boy’s section dwarfed that of the girl’s section. The girls section had two main categories of toys: dolls and cooking toys. The boys section had many more categories and it physically took up close to twice the floor space of the girls section. This leads me to believe that either boy’s play with toys more than girls do, or that girls choose to play with boy toys rather than girl toys. Another piece of evidence that led me to believe that boys play with toys more than girls is the fact that the boys section of the toy store was much messier than the girls section. Boys are more likely to grab things off the shelf and start playing with them right then and there rather than the girls. Some types of toys seem to be exclusively marketed towards boys. For instance the video game section (previously unmentioned) is marketed almost if not all towards that of boys. I could not find one video game that I would consider a girl oriented video game.

From my study I feel that the toy companies are not putting the effort and attention into designing toys specifically for girls. It is basically an equal rights issue in my mind. Girls are being unfairly treated in the toy market, and are sometimes maybe forced to play with toys designed for boys, because they do not happen to like the few boring toys that are designed for girls. The toy industry is thus increasing the gender gap.

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When is it right? Most people make a decision about when to have sex for the first time. Part of the decision is asking questions about many parts of sex. There are also questions about the responsibilities and the risks involved with sex. Sex is a pleasurable and exciting part of life. Some risks and problems of sexual activity that affect the body are unprotected sex, disease, or pregnancy. Being able to communicate about such risks and problems is an equally important part of sexual readiness. A teen who is ready for sexual activity needs to understand STDs and be prepared to prevent their spread. Using condoms during sexual activity can be a healthy choice. Females are biologically more likely than males to get an STD (Sexual Readiness, 2000). This is because of the way the female body is built. The germs that cause STDs have more places to linger and cause problems in the female body. They must also understand the risks of sex while under the influence of alcohol or other drugs. The combination of alcohol and other drugs with sexual activity is dangerous. Using alcohol and other drugs makes it difficult for a person to think clearly. For example, a couple may not use protection during sex, or a drunk or high partner may not respect the other partner’s sexual limits. A Sexual relationship involves many emotions. Choosing to be part of any relationship can be an emotional risk. When sex is involved, the emotional risk can increase because sex can change a relationship. Teens who learn to understand and express their emotions are preparing for sexual readiness. Another part of being ready for a sexual relationship is setting limits and standards for yourself. Limits are boundaries, or points beyond which someone will not go. Standards are expectations of how a relationship should be. It is important to decide how far you are willing to go before any sexual activity takes place. For couples who choose to engage in sexual intercourse, communication is especially important. Communicating about possible outcomes before they happen is important. For example, couples should discuss the method of protection they will use and how they will deal with a possible pregnancy before they have sexual intercourse. Willingness to take responsibility is a sign that a person is ready for a sexual relationship. Responsibility involves establishing, keeping, and respecting sexual limits and standards. Most teens are physically ready to have sexual intercourse at a young age. However, physical ability is only part of being ready to have sex. Being ready for a sexual relationship in all other ways should be a thoughtful, multiple-step process. It is normal for this process to happen over a period of time rather that all at once.

Below is a checklist of questions you should ask yourself to judge your own sexual readiness (www.thinkagain.ca ):

• Do I feel pressured?
• Do I have to “prove” that I love my partner?
• Have I thought about how sex might change the way I feel about myself?
• Will sex change my relationship?
• Do I feel comfortable with my body and how it works?
• Can I openly discuss feelings with my partner without feeling scared or embarrassed?
• Do I understand that unprotected sex may result in a possible pregnancy or STDs?
• Will I buy and use protection during sexual activity?
• Do I think this will be a fun and pleasurable experience for me?
• How does having sex fit with my beliefs?

According to one survey, teens today learn about sex from the following sources: friends – 45%, television – 29%, parents – 7%, and sex-education classes – 3% (Teen Sex, 2002). Children and teens learn about sexuality from their peers, or people their own age. Peer influences on sexuality begin in childhood. Children learn what boys do and what girls do through their play activities. Children put pressure on each other to act and dress in certain ways. They may tease or ridicule a child who doesn’t fit their idea of masculine or feminine. Peer influences become strongest during teen years. Teens look to their peer group for support as they begin the process of separating from their family. Friends and classmates influence teen sexuality in several ways. They usually have sharply defined gender roles and rules about sexuality, they may give information about sex, but it may not always be correct, and friends may try to pressure others into having sex. Influences from the media. The media includes television, movies, newspapers, magazines, books, advertising, and, most recently, the Internet. The Media often encourages unhealthy sexual attitudes and behaviours among teens. Teens today live in a world in which sex is everywhere. It appears on billboards, in the lyrics to popular songs, and in newspaper headlines. Nowhere is sex more common than on television. According to one estimate, TV exposes the average teen to 14,000 sexual messages each year (Changing Bodies, Changing Lives, 1998). On MTV, 75% of the videos that tell a story use sexual images. Over half involve violence, and 80% combine sex and violence (Sex, 2000). The sexual content of TV shows, movies, music videos, and other media may be direct or indirect. There may be scenes of couples kissing passionately, taking off each other’s clothes, and preparing for intercourse. This is direct, in-your-face sex. Indirect content includes comedians making jokes about sex or talk show hosts discussing the sex lives of their guests. Sexual scenes in the media usually feature young and attractive people. They may have just met. These people rarely discuss the possibility of an unplanned pregnancy or an STD. Teens may view sex as something couples automatically do in a relationship and may believe that having sex will make them seem mature. Teens may learn a great deal about the physical side of sexual intercourse from the media. However, TV shows and movies usually don’t show how sex affects people emotionally and the importance of respect and communication in a relationship. Parents and other caregivers play a major part in shaping a child’s sexuality. They help to establish the child’s gender identity and gender role and teach attitudes about sex and sexual behaviour. Parents begin the process of gender identity b giving their newborn a “girl’s” name or a “boy’s” name. Parents teach gender roles by the toys they give their children and through household tasks. Many of today’s parents avoid following traditional ideas of masculine and feminine. Parents have many opportunities to influence their children’s attitude toward sexuality. Their words and behaviour can contribute to either healthy or unhealthy sexual attitudes. Ideas learned as a child may stay with a person for the rest of his or her life. Parents can have a big influence on sexual behaviour of their teen children. Teens have many questions about dating, romantic relationships, sex, and birth control. They often want help setting limits on sexual activity and saying no to pressure to have sex. Most teens would like to be able to talk with their parents about these matters. Children and teens may learn about sexuality through formal, or planned, sex-education instruction. However, they are more likely to learn about sexuality indirectly from teachers, textbooks, and school activities. Several studies have shown that teachers, educational materials, and school activities influence students’ gender identity and role(Sex 2000). Knowing about influences on sexuality is important for everyone. It’s especially important for teens because they are at a critical stage in their sexual development.

Couples who decide to have sexual intercourse must protect themselves against unplanned pregnancy and STDs. Both partners must take responsibility. If a couple can’t talk about birth control and protection, they should think again about having sex. Many methods of birth control are available. Two main groups are over-the-counter methods and prescription methods. A few over-the-counter methods also protect against STDs. Over-the-counter birth control and protection can be purchased without a doctor’s prescription. It’s available in places such as drugstores and supermarkets, and are inexpensive and easy to use. They include: male and female condoms, spermicides, and dental dams. The male condom is a latex or soft plastic covering that fits over the erect penis during vaginal, oral, and anal intercourse. Male condoms are 98% effective in preventing pregnancy when used correctly with every act of intercourse. The latex condom protects against certain STDs, including HIV. For this reason, they are strongly recommended for use with other birth control methods. The female condom is a soft plastic pouch that fits inside the vagina. The open end remains outside the vagina for the penis to enter. Female condoms are from 79% – 95% effective in preventing pregnancy. Their effectiveness in preventing STDs is not known. Spermicides include foam, creams or gels, suppositories, and contraceptive film. They are inserted into the vagina. Spermicides are best used as backup protection with male condoms, diaphragms, and cervical caps. They may provide some protection against certain STDs, but this needs more research. The dental dam is a silky, thin latex material that protects against STDs during oral-vaginal or oral-anal sex. A person can lick or kiss through the dam. Prescription birth control must be obtained from a health care professional. Generally, a female first must have a pelvic exam(examination of the reproductive organs). Prescription birth control includes: birth control pills, Depo-Provera, Norplant, diaphragms, and cervical caps. None of these methods protect against STDs. Birth control pills when taken exactly as prescribed, prevent pregnancy almost 99% of the time. They are convenient to use but because they are drugs birth control pills can cause side effects. Depo-Provera is a birth control shot. Every 12 weeks, the female gets a shot in the arm or buttock. Depo-Provera is almost 100% effective in preventing pregnancy, but can also cause side effects. Norplant consists of 6 rubbery capsules. Each capsule is about 1 inch long. A doctor inserts the capsules on the underside of a females upper arm. Norplant is nearly 100% effective in preventing pregnancy. Protection lasts for five years. A diaphragm is a latex cup worn inside the vagina during sex. A doctor or nurse fits a female with a diaphragm. It should be used with a spermicidal cream or gel to be most effective in preventing pregnancy. Without spermicide, a diaphragm is only 82% effective. With spermicide, this figure raises to 94%. A cervical cap is like a diaphragm, only smaller. It fits more tightly over the cervix than a diaphragm does. The cervix is the opening between the vagina and the uterus. The uterus is the hollow organ when an unborn baby develops. When used with spermicide, cervical caps are 91% effective in preventing pregnancy. That concludes the two main groups of birth control, leaving adolescents and adults with many options.

The large, complicated, and interrelated accumulation of factors suggest that the course that leads to adolescent sexual activity and pregnancy is complex. Not merely one or two, but a multitude of antecedents are related to one or more sexual behaviours and pregnancy, including characteristics of the teens themselves, their peers and sexual partners, their families and their communities and states. The decision is yours.

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Over the last 50 years in particular, family life and the way it is organised in different societies has been a very popular area of study for sociologists. This has resulted in a great body of information being assembled which needs to be continually updated. This term paper will discuss the place of the family in society and different forms it may take.

The family may be defined as a unit within a society where people who are related to one another, either through birth or marriage, live together. The word “family” itself can have many meanings and uses. For instance it may be used to describe any group of persons, animals, plants, or items that are related to each other in some way. This is a very simple definition, but the fact is that “family”, either in its popular or academic use, is possibly one of the most ambiguous words in the English dictionary.

The functions of the family as seen from the theoretical perspective of functionalism includes such things as: the legitimising of sexual behaviour, the care and rearing of children, the roles of husband and wife, and the provision of a safe, secure environment for the emotional needs of the family members. The belief that the family provides all or any of the above for its members, especially for children, can be as true as it is false. With this in mind it is easy to see why the functionalist approach has lost its popularity with sociologists in recent times. Family life for some people is anything but safe and secure, and the reality for a lot of men, women and children, is that the family can be a source of misery and pain. This view is supported by the continuous news reports and court cases relating to violence of a sexual, physical or emotional nature directed towards a family member by other family members. An additional failing of the functionalist approach is its failing to take on board the effects of whatever economical situation people find themselves in. As economic systems can vary greatly from society to society, they have an enormous effect on family life.

Writing about the Kgatla tribe, who live in Botswana in southern Africa, Isaac Shapera tells us that the family in this case is seen as a man, his wives, their children, and other relatives. The family units in this tribe were self-sufficient. They produced their own food, built their own houses, and assisted one another in times of personal difficulties. They also socialised together. In addition, they bartered with other families if there was something needed that they could not produce themselves. This type of economy is known as a subsistence economy, and it provides just the bare necessity for survival.

In comparison to the families living in and depending on an industrial society, those depending on a subsistence economy live in poverty. They are very vulnerable to starvation and disease and in times of freak weather conditions and natural disasters rely on each other more, as they do not have the backup of state intervention in times of great need.

Before the Socialist Revolution of October 1917 in Russia, family life was controlled by various religious groups under the tsars. When the Bolsheviks took power, they immediately took steps to reduce the power of those groups, who they saw as upholding the concerns of the bourgeoisie. Using the Marxist ideal, they attempted to liberalise marriage relationships and divorce. The new rulers saw the old ways and ideas as an obstacle to building a socialist state.

1918 saw the introduction of civil marriage in place of the religious ceremony. It was now no longer for a wife to take her husband’s name. A wife was no longer bound to live with her husband, and the prejudicial treatment of illegitimate children was abolished. By the 1920s and 1930s, family life in Russia was breaking down and was being threatened from all sides. Juvenile delinquency and promiscuity were on the rise. The Soviet press and western observers blamed the newfound sexual freedom for the breakdown of the family.
In China, the subjugation and oppression of women and young girls was carried to extreme lengths both within and outside the family. The people of this society lived by the philosophy of Confucius, which was particularly cruel to women. There were three “obediences” demanded of women: 1) when young, women were bound to obey their fathers and older brothers, 2) when married, they had to obey their husbands and 3) if widowed, they were bound to obey their sons. Women also had to possess four virtues: 1) they should know their place, 2) hold their tongue, 3) look attractive and 4) love housework. Marriages were like business arrangements, and the marriage of children was not uncommon. The selling of young girls into prostitution was also used as an alternative to marriage. Chinese women were used to produce children, and had their feet bound when they were very young to keep their movements to a minimum. Divorce was impossible for women, though a man could divorce his wife at any time.

In 1949 the People’s Republic of China was founded under the leadership of Mao Tse Tung. This brought about an immediate change. The buying and selling of young girls was prohibited, and new laws of marriage were enacted. Discrimination against illegitimate children, which was also part of this society, was forbidden, and divorce was allowed if both husband and wife wanted it, though it was not encouraged.

China today encourages its young people not to marry at a very young age, believing that education should go on until the early twenties. The early part of a person’s life should not be burdened by the responsibilities of marriage. Marriage ceremonies are very brief affairs, and only require a visit to the local government office.

A great deal of co-operation takes place between families in China, and it is not uncommon for families to be sharing such things as kitchen and bathroom facilities. In addition, the elderly members of families provide childcare and look after the domestic side of family life, allowing younger family members to work outside the home. Another point of interest is that in China the state has introduced measure whereby the burden on working women is reduced by the provision of childcare, washing and sewing facilities, and public dining facilities. Family planning, contraception, sterilisation, and abortion are freely available in China.

Because of the many and diverse societies in the world, this makes for many different types of family unit. The nuclear or conjugal family came into being as a result of the development of capitalism in western societies. It is made up of a wife, husband, and children, and though it is accepted as a modern development, parish and town records in Britain show that families of this nature have existed as far back as the 16th century. There are certain rules and values which govern the nuclear family, regardless of what society it belongs to. For example, one of these rules is that sexual relations between family members is forbidden, except between husband and wife. Some societies also prohibit divorce, as was the case in Ireland until recently. However, this prohibition, which was written into the Irish constitution in 1937, was amended in 1995.

The needs of a capitalist economy are served well by the versatile nuclear family. This versatility is assisted by the concept of “division of labour” within the family. This concept has several uses, but for the purposes of this paper, the focus will be on difference between “wage labour” and “domestic labour”. Domestic labour is taken on by one of the partners in the family, usually the woman, while wage labour is done by the other partner. The independence of the family unit and the division of labour within it is fundamental to the capitalist system. This independence from other families makes them more reliant on the capitalist system for which they provide the labour, plus they are also the market on which the system survives.

Ireland is home of many variations of family life. One of these is the “stem” family. This was made up of the parents, one of their married sons (usually the eldest), his wife and children, and his brothers or sisters. It was similar to a family type which exists within the Hindu religion and consists of married sons and their wives and children sharing the one household. In this patriarchal family the oldest male managed its affairs.
Another form of family was reported by Fox, this time on Tory Island. On this island, out of 50 recorded marriages, ten couples conformed to a system whereby the husbands and wives lived with their own parents and had a visiting relationship with their spouse.

Yet another family type which is rapidly increasing in number is the single parent family. These were initially the result of a rising divorce rate, but more recently it has gained popularity with a growing population of young mothers who have no desire to marry. It is no longer necessary for a young pregnant woman to rush into a marriage because of the stigma attached to being pregnant out of wedlock.

Family ties are not limited to the nuclear or conjugal relationship. The stem family or the Hindu joint family mentioned above is basically an expansion of the nuclear family. The term “extended family” is used by sociologists to describe that type of family which exists when a number of nuclear families live in close proximity to one another and are socialising on an ongoing basis.

The family as the primary unit of society has been discussed in this paper. It is quite clear that for the survival of humanity some form of family is vital. This reason alone is a sufficient indication of its primacy in society.

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When you write a good sociology term paper you need to use the professional terms, avoid making generalizations and back-up statements with in-text citations. Search out related texts that are similar to your work, presenting evidence that you are not alone in your opinions and decisions. Be sure to keep in mind that there may be theorists who do not agree with your decisions, what they would say if they read your Sociology term paper. Apply the information that supports your work, and defend your position by understanding the other viewpoints that apply. The Baby Boomers present a growing concern for the costs to the world as they remain in the workforce, contribute to continuing buying power, and contribute to growing health costs. However, some theorists believe that these changes represent important discoveries to the world, including obvious relationships with technology increases.

When writing a good Sociology term paper you will need to have someone reliable check it over for errors and inconsistencies. Be sure to get help from a qualified source. If you decide to use a source from an online writing service, be careful to find a site you know won’t steal your work, and one that will use educated writers to assist you. Sociology is opinion based; however, it must be based on solid fact and resources. Using an online service must include a reliable source and reliable writers. Make your decisions count and use a service with a guarantee.

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Over the last 50 years in particular, family life and the way it is organised in different societies has been a very popular area of study for sociologists. This has resulted in a great body of information being assembled which needs to be continually updated. This term paper will discuss the place of the family in society and different forms it may take.

The family may be defined as a unit within a society where people who are related to one another, either through birth or marriage, live together. The word “family” itself can have many meanings and uses. For instance it may be used to describe any group of persons, animals, plants, or items that are related to each other in some way. This is a very simple definition, but the fact is that “family”, either in its popular or academic use, is possibly one of the most ambiguous words in the English dictionary.

The functions of the family as seen from the theoretical perspective of functionalism includes such things as: the legitimising of sexual behaviour, the care and rearing of children, the roles of husband and wife, and the provision of a safe, secure environment for the emotional needs of the family members. The belief that the family provides all or any of the above for its members, especially for children, can be as true as it is false. With this in mind it is easy to see why the functionalist approach has lost its popularity with sociologists in recent times. Family life for some people is anything but safe and secure, and the reality for a lot of men, women and children, is that the family can be a source of misery and pain. This view is supported by the continuous news reports and court cases relating to violence of a sexual, physical or emotional nature directed towards a family member by other family members. An additional failing of the functionalist approach is its failing to take on board the effects of whatever economical situation people find themselves in. As economic systems can vary greatly from society to society, they have an enormous effect on family life.

Writing about the Kgatla tribe, who live in Botswana in southern Africa, Isaac Shapera tells us that the family in this case is seen as a man, his wives, their children, and other relatives. The family units in this tribe were self-sufficient. They produced their own food, built their own houses, and assisted one another in times of personal difficulties. They also socialised together. In addition, they bartered with other families if there was something needed that they could not produce themselves. This type of economy is known as a subsistence economy, and it provides just the bare necessity for survival.

In comparison to the families living in and depending on an industrial society, those depending on a subsistence economy live in poverty. They are very vulnerable to starvation and disease and in times of freak weather conditions and natural disasters rely on each other more, as they do not have the backup of state intervention in times of great need.

Before the Socialist Revolution of October 1917 in Russia, family life was controlled by various religious groups under the tsars. When the Bolsheviks took power, they immediately took steps to reduce the power of those groups, who they saw as upholding the concerns of the bourgeoisie. Using the Marxist ideal, they attempted to liberalise marriage relationships and divorce. The new rulers saw the old ways and ideas as an obstacle to building a socialist state.

1918 saw the introduction of civil marriage in place of the religious ceremony. It was now no longer for a wife to take her husband’s name. A wife was no longer bound to live with her husband, and the prejudicial treatment of illegitimate children was abolished. By the 1920s and 1930s, family life in Russia was breaking down and was being threatened from all sides. Juvenile delinquency and promiscuity were on the rise. The Soviet press and western observers blamed the newfound sexual freedom for the breakdown of the family.

In China, the subjugation and oppression of women and young girls was carried to extreme lengths both within and outside the family. The people of this society lived by the philosophy of Confucius, which was particularly cruel to women. There were three “obediences” demanded of women: 1) when young, women were bound to obey their fathers and older brothers, 2) when married, they had to obey their husbands and 3) if widowed, they were bound to obey their sons. Women also had to possess four virtues: 1) they should know their place, 2) hold their tongue, 3) look attractive and 4) love housework. Marriages were like business arrangements, and the marriage of children was not uncommon. The selling of young girls into prostitution was also used as an alternative to marriage. Chinese women were used to produce children, and had their feet bound when they were very young to keep their movements to a minimum. Divorce was impossible for women, though a man could divorce his wife at any time.

In 1949 the People’s Republic of China was founded under the leadership of Mao Tse Tung. This brought about an immediate change. The buying and selling of young girls was prohibited, and new laws of marriage were enacted. Discrimination against illegitimate children, which was also part of this society, was forbidden, and divorce was allowed if both husband and wife wanted it, though it was not encouraged.

China today encourages its young people not to marry at a very young age, believing that education should go on until the early twenties. The early part of a person’s life should not be burdened by the responsibilities of marriage. Marriage ceremonies are very brief affairs, and only require a visit to the local government office.

A great deal of co-operation takes place between families in China, and it is not uncommon for families to be sharing such things as kitchen and bathroom facilities. In addition, the elderly members of families provide childcare and look after the domestic side of family life, allowing younger family members to work outside the home. Another point of interest is that in China the state has introduced measure whereby the burden on working women is reduced by the provision of childcare, washing and sewing facilities, and public dining facilities. Family planning, contraception, sterilisation, and abortion are freely available in China.

Because of the many and diverse societies in the world, this makes for many different types of family unit. The nuclear or conjugal family came into being as a result of the development of capitalism in western societies. It is made up of a wife, husband, and children, and though it is accepted as a modern development, parish and town records in Britain show that families of this nature have existed as far back as the 16th century. There are certain rules and values which govern the nuclear family, regardless of what society it belongs to. For example, one of these rules is that sexual relations between family members is forbidden, except between husband and wife. Some societies also prohibit divorce, as was the case in Ireland until recently. However, this prohibition, which was written into the Irish constitution in 1937, was amended in 1995.

The needs of a capitalist economy are served well by the versatile nuclear family. This versatility is assisted by the concept of “division of labour” within the family. This concept has several uses, but for the purposes of this paper, the focus will be on difference between “wage labour” and “domestic labour”. Domestic labour is taken on by one of the partners in the family, usually the woman, while wage labour is done by the other partner. The independence of the family unit and the division of labour within it is fundamental to the capitalist system. This independence from other families makes them more reliant on the capitalist system for which they provide the labour, plus they are also the market on which the system survives.

Ireland is home of many variations of family life. One of these is the “stem” family. This was made up of the parents, one of their married sons (usually the eldest), his wife and children, and his brothers or sisters. It was similar to a family type which exists within the Hindu religion and consists of married sons and their wives and children sharing the one household. In this patriarchal family the oldest male managed its affairs.

Another form of family was reported by Fox, this time on Tory Island. On this island, out of 50 recorded marriages, ten couples conformed to a system whereby the husbands and wives lived with their own parents and had a visiting relationship with their spouse.

Yet another family type which is rapidly increasing in number is the single parent family. These were initially the result of a rising divorce rate, but more recently it has gained popularity with a growing population of young mothers who have no desire to marry. It is no longer necessary for a young pregnant woman to rush into a marriage because of the stigma attached to being pregnant out of wedlock.

Family ties are not limited to the nuclear or conjugal relationship. The stem family or the Hindu joint family mentioned above is basically an expansion of the nuclear family. The term “extended family” is used by sociologists to describe that type of family which exists when a number of nuclear families live in close proximity to one another and are socialising on an ongoing basis.

The family as the primary unit of society has been discussed in this paper. It is quite clear that for the survival of humanity some form of family is vital. This reason alone is a sufficient indication of its primacy in society.

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